{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3185922622","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3462757.3466102","title":"Using transformers to improve answer retrieval for legal questions","display_name":"Using transformers to improve answer retrieval for legal questions","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-06-21","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3185922622","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3462757.3466102","mag":"3185922622"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3462757.3466102","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3462757.3466102","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046844862","display_name":"Andrew Vold","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9654-4712"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210115483","display_name":"Thomson Reuters (Canada)","ror":"https://ror.org/01r4zz038","country_code":"CA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210115483"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Andrew Vold","raw_affiliation_strings":["Thomson Reuters"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Thomson Reuters","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210115483"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025701458","display_name":"Jack G. Conrad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9114-9385"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210115483","display_name":"Thomson Reuters (Canada)","ror":"https://ror.org/01r4zz038","country_code":"CA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210115483"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jack G. Conrad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Thomson Reuters"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Thomson Reuters","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210115483"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5046844862"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210115483"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.8191,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":17,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.87854916,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"245","last_page":"249"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9995999932289124,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13083","display_name":"Advanced Text Analysis Techniques","score":0.9570000171661377,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7902278900146484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automatic-summarization","display_name":"Automatic summarization","score":0.7693780064582825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/question-answering","display_name":"Question answering","score":0.7600940465927124},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transformer","display_name":"Transformer","score":0.6971595287322998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.6468009948730469},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5641599297523499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-translation","display_name":"Machine translation","score":0.5235040783882141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.49549901485443115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mean-reciprocal-rank","display_name":"Mean reciprocal rank","score":0.45560070872306824},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.4395483434200287},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-retrieval","display_name":"Information retrieval","score":0.33004552125930786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.09848585724830627},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/voltage","display_name":"Voltage","score":0.08875823020935059}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7902278900146484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C170858558","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1394144","display_name":"Automatic summarization","level":2,"score":0.7693780064582825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44291984","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1074173","display_name":"Question answering","level":2,"score":0.7600940465927124},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66322947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658","display_name":"Transformer","level":3,"score":0.6971595287322998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.6468009948730469},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5641599297523499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203005215","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79798","display_name":"Machine translation","level":2,"score":0.5235040783882141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.49549901485443115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44083865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3853443","display_name":"Mean reciprocal rank","level":2,"score":0.45560070872306824},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.4395483434200287},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23123220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816826","display_name":"Information retrieval","level":1,"score":0.33004552125930786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.09848585724830627},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165801399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25428","display_name":"Voltage","level":2,"score":0.08875823020935059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3462757.3466102","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3462757.3466102","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.8299999833106995,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":30,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1967578387","https://openalex.org/W2020894809","https://openalex.org/W2086511124","https://openalex.org/W2148143831","https://openalex.org/W2155482025","https://openalex.org/W2517394750","https://openalex.org/W2626154462","https://openalex.org/W2778343541","https://openalex.org/W2896457183","https://openalex.org/W2907544104","https://openalex.org/W2933138175","https://openalex.org/W2953657451","https://openalex.org/W2962985038","https://openalex.org/W2963241005","https://openalex.org/W2963341956","https://openalex.org/W2963748441","https://openalex.org/W2965373594","https://openalex.org/W2970728484","https://openalex.org/W2974875810","https://openalex.org/W3011480649","https://openalex.org/W3099700870","https://openalex.org/W3099950029","https://openalex.org/W3100468923","https://openalex.org/W3105966348","https://openalex.org/W4252076394","https://openalex.org/W6655664251","https://openalex.org/W6672077861","https://openalex.org/W6718053083","https://openalex.org/W6784117431","https://openalex.org/W6785429573"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4214678372","https://openalex.org/W1605559518","https://openalex.org/W4214601164","https://openalex.org/W4284703357","https://openalex.org/W4317547544","https://openalex.org/W3130378938","https://openalex.org/W4313395829","https://openalex.org/W2969318268","https://openalex.org/W1575184037","https://openalex.org/W3176018525"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Transformer":[0],"architectures":[1],"such":[2,25],"as":[3,26],"BERT,":[4],"XLNet,":[5],"and":[6,33,51,121],"others":[7],"are":[8],"frequently":[9],"used":[10],"in":[11,23,69,91,119,125],"the":[12,76,92,97,106,130],"field":[13],"of":[14,38,47,80],"natural":[15],"language":[16],"processing.":[17],"Transformers":[18],"have":[19],"achieved":[20],"state-of-the-art":[21],"performance":[22,79,98],"tasks":[24],"text":[27],"classification,":[28],"passage":[29],"summarization,":[30],"machine":[31,88],"translation,":[32],"question":[34,65],"answering.":[35],"Efficient":[36],"hosting":[37],"transformer":[39],"models,":[40],"however,":[41],"is":[42],"a":[43,62,70,81,86,101,116,122],"difficult":[44],"task":[45],"because":[46],"their":[48],"large":[49],"size":[50],"high":[52],"latency.":[53],"In":[54],"this":[55],"work,":[56],"we":[57,60],"describe":[58],"how":[59],"deploy":[61],"RoBERTa":[63,82,114],"Base":[64,83],"answer":[66,77],"classification":[67],"model":[68,90],"production":[71],"environment.":[72],"We":[73,111],"also":[74],"compare":[75],"retrieval":[78],"classifier":[84],"against":[85],"traditional":[87,131],"learning":[89],"legal":[93],"domain":[94],"by":[95],"measuring":[96],"difference":[99],"between":[100],"trained":[102],"linear":[103],"SVM":[104],"on":[105],"publicly":[107],"available":[108],"PRIVACYQA":[109],"dataset.":[110],"show":[112],"that":[113],"achieves":[115],"31%":[117],"improvement":[118,124],"F1-score":[120],"41%":[123],"Mean":[126],"Reciprocal":[127],"Rank":[128],"over":[129],"SVM.":[132]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}