{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2982212956","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3318041.3355457","title":"SoK","display_name":"SoK","publication_year":2019,"publication_date":"2019-10-21","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2982212956","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3318041.3355457","mag":"2982212956"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3318041.3355457","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3318041.3355457","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 1st ACM Conference on Advances in Financial Technologies","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100367289","display_name":"Gang Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5349-177X"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Gang Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Connecticut"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Connecticut","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101431752","display_name":"Zhijie Shi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6773-8371"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhijie Jerry Shi","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Connecticut"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Connecticut","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5014438135","display_name":"Mark Nixon","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9174-5934"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I918872813","display_name":"Emerson (Sweden)","ror":"https://ror.org/00ej6x457","country_code":"SE","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210117810","https://openalex.org/I918872813"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mark Nixon","raw_affiliation_strings":["Emerson Automation Solutions"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Emerson Automation Solutions","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I918872813"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100623628","display_name":"Song Han","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1491-7675"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Song Han","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Connecticut"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Connecticut","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100367289"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":33.7525,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":264,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99691263,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"41","last_page":"61"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9995999932289124,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9995999932289124,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10772","display_name":"Distributed systems and fault tolerance","score":0.992900013923645,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10502","display_name":"Advanced Memory and Neural Computing","score":0.9896000027656555,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.88388592004776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.865876317024231},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.7649701833724976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-computing","display_name":"Distributed computing","score":0.608056902885437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/directed-acyclic-graph","display_name":"Directed acyclic graph","score":0.532720685005188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/protocol","display_name":"Protocol (science)","score":0.4774240255355835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/latency","display_name":"Latency (audio)","score":0.4689618647098541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.42162367701530457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-network","display_name":"Computer network","score":0.3848514258861542},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.18942472338676453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/operating-system","display_name":"Operating system","score":0.12539246678352356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.06539592146873474}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.88388592004776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.865876317024231},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.7649701833724976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.608056902885437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74197172","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1195339","display_name":"Directed acyclic graph","level":2,"score":0.532720685005188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780385302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367158","display_name":"Protocol (science)","level":3,"score":0.4774240255355835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82876162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17096504","display_name":"Latency (audio)","level":2,"score":0.4689618647098541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.42162367701530457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.3848514258861542},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.18942472338676453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.12539246678352356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.06539592146873474},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204787440","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188504","display_name":"Alternative medicine","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142724271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7208","display_name":"Pathology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3318041.3355457","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3318041.3355457","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 1st ACM Conference on Advances in Financial Technologies","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":132,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W15308973","https://openalex.org/W95608104","https://openalex.org/W182170519","https://openalex.org/W1509284085","https://openalex.org/W1520914943","https://openalex.org/W1569204576","https://openalex.org/W1593596963","https://openalex.org/W1601379374","https://openalex.org/W1610688607","https://openalex.org/W1698117324","https://openalex.org/W1836078613","https://openalex.org/W1837145606","https://openalex.org/W1849658558","https://openalex.org/W1965159636","https://openalex.org/W1980650074","https://openalex.org/W1981243275","https://openalex.org/W1989431565","https://openalex.org/W1989850654","https://openalex.org/W1999522397","https://openalex.org/W2000832815","https://openalex.org/W2001271834","https://openalex.org/W2004964495","https://openalex.org/W2007661053","https://openalex.org/W2010042648","https://openalex.org/W2013409485","https://openalex.org/W2019890995","https://openalex.org/W2025142762","https://openalex.org/W2033356616","https://openalex.org/W2034791526","https://openalex.org/W2035362408","https://openalex.org/W2040993775","https://openalex.org/W2042226948","https://openalex.org/W2051837689","https://openalex.org/W2056903984","https://openalex.org/W2070941848","https://openalex.org/W2075729786","https://openalex.org/W2077304190","https://openalex.org/W2080288192","https://openalex.org/W2095763432","https://openalex.org/W2097517365","https://openalex.org/W2098104887","https://openalex.org/W2103863878","https://openalex.org/W2106004025","https://openalex.org/W2106887953","https://openalex.org/W2112963602","https://openalex.org/W2114349788","https://openalex.org/W2114579022","https://openalex.org/W2114780662","https://openalex.org/W2119245106","https://openalex.org/W2121510533","https://openalex.org/W2126087831","https://openalex.org/W2126377116","https://openalex.org/W2126924915","https://openalex.org/W2128356562","https://openalex.org/W2131053137","https://openalex.org/W2131132597","https://openalex.org/W2137042154","https://openalex.org/W2141420453","https://openalex.org/W2143149536","https://openalex.org/W2149623556","https://openalex.org/W2151426692","https://openalex.org/W2153193245","https://openalex.org/W2161038773","https://openalex.org/W2161053053","https://openalex.org/W2161346224","https://openalex.org/W2165491783","https://openalex.org/W2167882086","https://openalex.org/W2168970529","https://openalex.org/W2169187571","https://openalex.org/W2182035090","https://openalex.org/W2294017245","https://openalex.org/W2339337490","https://openalex.org/W2341655714","https://openalex.org/W2350778671","https://openalex.org/W2394831348","https://openalex.org/W2397423248","https://openalex.org/W2401492698","https://openalex.org/W2470694705","https://openalex.org/W2508146883","https://openalex.org/W2534313446","https://openalex.org/W2535104337","https://openalex.org/W2551240797","https://openalex.org/W2573050643","https://openalex.org/W2604122668","https://openalex.org/W2605103916","https://openalex.org/W2607508925","https://openalex.org/W2717184009","https://openalex.org/W2725542890","https://openalex.org/W2726001757","https://openalex.org/W2739845435","https://openalex.org/W2751559473","https://openalex.org/W2763398287","https://openalex.org/W2774909858","https://openalex.org/W2785230288","https://openalex.org/W2792057082","https://openalex.org/W2794533297","https://openalex.org/W2794997550","https://openalex.org/W2795222609","https://openalex.org/W2805263079","https://openalex.org/W2884026699","https://openalex.org/W2885542306","https://openalex.org/W2888974282","https://openalex.org/W2890933237","https://openalex.org/W2892389652","https://openalex.org/W2897676665","https://openalex.org/W2899354400","https://openalex.org/W2899466157","https://openalex.org/W2901994931","https://openalex.org/W2902905458","https://openalex.org/W2903853765","https://openalex.org/W2910815950","https://openalex.org/W2917183287","https://openalex.org/W2931462021","https://openalex.org/W2932055226","https://openalex.org/W2951956341","https://openalex.org/W2956869838","https://openalex.org/W2963997141","https://openalex.org/W2964159515","https://openalex.org/W2964303100","https://openalex.org/W2977876145","https://openalex.org/W2979777917","https://openalex.org/W3099251797","https://openalex.org/W3102600874","https://openalex.org/W3102661748","https://openalex.org/W3151748982","https://openalex.org/W4300127641","https://openalex.org/W6600137863","https://openalex.org/W6600194071","https://openalex.org/W6682380723","https://openalex.org/W6683808932","https://openalex.org/W6736392004","https://openalex.org/W6982447762"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4210406818","https://openalex.org/W4306779889","https://openalex.org/W3048554917","https://openalex.org/W3211706803","https://openalex.org/W4382775358","https://openalex.org/W4246942721","https://openalex.org/W4388131927","https://openalex.org/W4220849471","https://openalex.org/W2393741509","https://openalex.org/W2914790213"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Blockchain":[0],"is":[1,11,81,109],"a":[2,32,85,92,125,137],"distributed":[3],"and":[4,13,53,79,101,127,144,155],"decentralized":[5],"ledger":[6],"for":[7],"recording":[8],"transactions.":[9],"It":[10],"maintained":[12],"shared":[14],"among":[15],"the":[16,64,99,115,157],"participating":[17],"nodes":[18,29],"by":[19],"utilizing":[20],"cryptographic":[21],"primitives.":[22],"A":[23],"consensus":[24],"protocol":[25],"ensures":[26],"that":[27,95,113],"all":[28],"agree":[30],"on":[31,130],"unique":[33],"order":[34],"in":[35,104,159,169],"which":[36],"records":[37],"are":[38,44],"appended.":[39],"However,":[40,66],"current":[41],"blockchain":[42,86,131,170],"solutions":[43],"facing":[45],"scalability":[46,100],"issues.":[47],"Many":[48],"methods,":[49],"such":[50,76],"as":[51,77,91],"Off-chain":[52],"Directed":[54],"Acyclic":[55],"Graph":[56],"(DAG)":[57],"solutions,":[58],"have":[59,68],"been":[60],"proposed":[61],"to":[62,84],"address":[63],"issue.":[65],"they":[67],"inherent":[69],"drawbacks,":[70],"e.g.,":[71],"forming":[72],"parasite":[73],"chains.":[74],"Performance,":[75],"throughput":[78],"latency,":[80],"also":[82],"important":[83],"system.":[87],"Sharding":[88],"has":[89],"emerged":[90],"good":[93],"candidate":[94],"can":[96],"overcome":[97],"both":[98],"performance":[102],"problems":[103],"blockchain.":[105],"To":[106,118],"date,":[107],"there":[108],"no":[110],"systematic":[111,126],"work":[112],"analyzes":[114],"sharding":[116,132,142],"protocols.":[117],"bridge":[119],"this":[120,122],"gap,":[121],"paper":[123],"provides":[124],"comprehensive":[128],"review":[129],"techniques.":[133],"We":[134],"first":[135],"present":[136],"general":[138],"design":[139,148],"flow":[140],"of":[141],"protocols":[143],"then":[145],"discuss":[146,164],"key":[147],"challenges.":[149],"For":[150],"each":[151],"challenge,":[152],"we":[153,163],"analyze":[154],"compare":[156],"techniques":[158],"state-of-the-art":[160],"solutions.":[161],"Finally,":[162],"several":[165],"potential":[166],"research":[167],"directions":[168],"sharding.":[171]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":44},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":54},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":67},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":33},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":38},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":23},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-03-17T09:09:15.849793","created_date":"2019-11-01T00:00:00"}