{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2335791207","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2883851.2883957","title":"Is the doer effect a causal relationship?","display_name":"Is the doer effect a causal relationship?","publication_year":2016,"publication_date":"2016-04-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2335791207","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2883851.2883957","mag":"2335791207"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/2883851.2883957","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2883851.2883957","pdf_url":"http://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=2883957&type=pdf","source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"http://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=2883957&type=pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":null},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062550465","display_name":"Kenneth R. Koedinger","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5850-4768"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kenneth R. Koedinger","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056605509","display_name":"Elizabeth A. McLaughlin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2650-6504"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Elizabeth A. McLaughlin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037167532","display_name":"Julianna Zhuxin Jia","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Julianna Zhuxin Jia","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090982121","display_name":"Norman Bier","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3666-3973"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Norman L. Bier","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5062550465"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.9884,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":65,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.93944659,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"388","last_page":"397"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11122","display_name":"Online Learning and Analytics","score":0.9979000091552734,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11122","display_name":"Online Learning and Analytics","score":0.9979000091552734,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10162","display_name":"Online and Blended Learning","score":0.9966999888420105,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.9957000017166138,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generalizability-theory","display_name":"Generalizability theory","score":0.912043571472168},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/learning-analytics","display_name":"Learning analytics","score":0.6827084422111511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.6407297849655151},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6303592324256897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/complement","display_name":"Complement (music)","score":0.6156476736068726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interpretation","display_name":"Interpretation (philosophy)","score":0.5678188800811768},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/association","display_name":"Association (psychology)","score":0.5659615993499756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reading","display_name":"Reading (process)","score":0.532382607460022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/causal-inference","display_name":"Causal inference","score":0.4722054898738861},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-psychology","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","score":0.4580250680446625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/analytics","display_name":"Analytics","score":0.44973695278167725},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.4274653494358063},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.3829666078090668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/econometrics","display_name":"Econometrics","score":0.12566906213760376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/developmental-psychology","display_name":"Developmental psychology","score":0.09786424040794373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/linguistics","display_name":"Linguistics","score":0.08378481864929199}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27158222","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5532422","display_name":"Generalizability theory","level":2,"score":0.912043571472168},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777648619","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2845208","display_name":"Learning analytics","level":2,"score":0.6827084422111511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.6407297849655151},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6303592324256897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112313634","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7886648","display_name":"Complement (music)","level":5,"score":0.6156476736068726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C527412718","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q855395","display_name":"Interpretation (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.5678188800811768},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142853389","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q744778","display_name":"Association (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5659615993499756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554936623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199657","display_name":"Reading (process)","level":2,"score":0.532382607460022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158600405","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5054566","display_name":"Causal inference","level":2,"score":0.4722054898738861},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.4580250680446625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79158427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q485396","display_name":"Analytics","level":2,"score":0.44973695278167725},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4274653494358063},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.3829666078090668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.12566906213760376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138496976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175002","display_name":"Developmental psychology","level":1,"score":0.09786424040794373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.08378481864929199},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C542102704","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183257","display_name":"Psychotherapist","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188082640","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1780899","display_name":"Complementation","level":4,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127716648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q104053","display_name":"Phenotype","level":3,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/2883851.2883957","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2883851.2883957","pdf_url":"http://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=2883957&type=pdf","source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/2883851.2883957","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2883851.2883957","pdf_url":"http://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=2883957&type=pdf","source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.8999999761581421,"display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1093312751","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"1443068","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7354828234","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"ACI-1443068","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G848032724","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Science","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320309327","display_name":"Google","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2335791207.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2335791207.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":19,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1976637107","https://openalex.org/W1992744374","https://openalex.org/W2028487549","https://openalex.org/W2038558034","https://openalex.org/W2077707062","https://openalex.org/W2085269091","https://openalex.org/W2095206027","https://openalex.org/W2106779500","https://openalex.org/W2108602246","https://openalex.org/W2112564774","https://openalex.org/W2113386642","https://openalex.org/W2132960397","https://openalex.org/W2133705455","https://openalex.org/W2140995456","https://openalex.org/W2159480120","https://openalex.org/W2340414073","https://openalex.org/W3216916959","https://openalex.org/W4253854259","https://openalex.org/W6676934228"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1987827786","https://openalex.org/W2799586942","https://openalex.org/W2504091800","https://openalex.org/W2331775400","https://openalex.org/W2816728186","https://openalex.org/W2804624249","https://openalex.org/W2560130217","https://openalex.org/W605203981","https://openalex.org/W2911048623","https://openalex.org/W4292348877"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"\"doer":[1],"effect\"":[2],"is":[3,21,180],"an":[4,44],"association":[5,45],"between":[6],"the":[7,81,111,136,175],"number":[8],"of":[9,94,110,113,135,149,178,187],"online":[10,97],"interactive":[11],"practice":[12],"activities":[13],"students'":[14],"do":[15],"and":[16,66],"their":[17],"learning":[18,34,98,117,122,148,176],"outcomes":[19],"that":[20,80,92,128,141,150,174,186],"not":[22,76],"only":[23],"statistically":[24],"reliable":[25],"but":[26],"has":[27],"much":[28],"higher":[29],"positive":[30],"effects":[31],"than":[32,154,185],"other":[33,87],"resources,":[35],"such":[36,62],"as":[37],"watching":[38],"videos":[39],"or":[40,159],"reading":[41],"text.":[42],"Such":[43],"suggests":[46],"a":[47,71,132,144],"causal":[48,82,133],"interpretation--more":[49],"doing":[50,142,155,179],"yields":[51],"better":[52,120],"learning--which":[53],"requires":[54],"randomized":[55],"experimentation":[56],"to":[57,86],"most":[58],"rigorously":[59],"confirm.":[60],"But":[61],"experiments":[63],"are":[64],"expensive,":[65],"any":[67],"single":[68],"experiment":[69],"in":[70,130,156],"particular":[72],"course":[73,88,145],"context":[74],"does":[75],"provide":[77,163],"rigorous":[78],"evidence":[79,165],"link":[83],"will":[84],"generalize":[85],"content.":[89],"We":[90,124,161],"suggest":[91],"analytics":[93,127],"increasingly":[95],"available":[96],"data":[99],"sets":[100],"can":[101],"complement":[102],"experimental":[103],"efforts":[104],"by":[105,139],"facilitating":[106],"more":[107,153],"widespread":[108],"evaluation":[109],"generalizability":[112,164],"claims":[114],"about":[115,181],"what":[116],"methods":[118],"produce":[119],"student":[121],"outcomes.":[123],"illustrate":[125],"with":[126],"narrow":[129],"on":[131],"interpretation":[134],"doer":[137],"effect":[138,177],"showing":[140],"within":[143],"unit":[146,151],"predicts":[147],"content":[152],"units":[157],"before":[158],"after.":[160],"also":[162],"across":[166],"four":[167],"different":[168],"courses":[169],"involving":[170],"over":[171],"12,500":[172],"students":[173],"six":[182],"times":[183],"greater":[184],"reading.":[188]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-03-18T14:38:29.013473","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}