{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2338778612","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2866574","title":"Beat Frequency Detector--Based High-Speed True Random Number Generators","display_name":"Beat Frequency Detector--Based High-Speed True Random Number Generators","publication_year":2016,"publication_date":"2016-04-13","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2338778612","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2866574","mag":"2338778612"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/2866574","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2866574","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S96198239","display_name":"ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems","issn_l":"1550-4832","issn":["1550-4832","1550-4840"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071172709","display_name":"Yingjie Lao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9413-2455"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130238516","display_name":"University of Minnesota","ror":"https://ror.org/017zqws13","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yingjie Lao","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102740541","display_name":"Qianying Tang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4138-2087"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130238516","display_name":"University of Minnesota","ror":"https://ror.org/017zqws13","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qianying Tang","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043025421","display_name":"Chris H. Kim","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4194-1347"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130238516","display_name":"University of Minnesota","ror":"https://ror.org/017zqws13","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chris H. Kim","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007884053","display_name":"Keshab K. Parhi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6543-2793"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130238516","display_name":"University of Minnesota","ror":"https://ror.org/017zqws13","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Keshab K. Parhi","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5071172709"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130238516"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.002,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":11,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.82366663,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":"1","first_page":"1","last_page":"25"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11017","display_name":"Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11017","display_name":"Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9990000128746033,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12122","display_name":"Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security","score":0.9980999827384949,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1708","display_name":"Hardware and Architecture"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-number-generation","display_name":"Random number generation","score":0.8040620684623718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cascade","display_name":"Cascade","score":0.6536845564842224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/randomness","display_name":"Randomness","score":0.6082075834274292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ring-oscillator","display_name":"Ring oscillator","score":0.5312843918800354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.5109013915061951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5097138285636902},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/randomness-tests","display_name":"Randomness tests","score":0.5048235058784485},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/detector","display_name":"Detector","score":0.48201361298561096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electronic-engineering","display_name":"Electronic engineering","score":0.32982057332992554},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.2996184825897217},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.29427123069763184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.15679648518562317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cmos","display_name":"CMOS","score":0.11071130633354187}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201866948","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228206","display_name":"Random number generation","level":2,"score":0.8040620684623718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34146451","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5048094","display_name":"Cascade","level":2,"score":0.6536845564842224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125112378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176640","display_name":"Randomness","level":2,"score":0.6082075834274292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104111718","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2153973","display_name":"Ring oscillator","level":3,"score":0.5312843918800354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.5109013915061951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5097138285636902},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18017163","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13560113","display_name":"Randomness tests","level":3,"score":0.5048235058784485},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94915269","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1834857","display_name":"Detector","level":2,"score":0.48201361298561096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24326235","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126095","display_name":"Electronic engineering","level":1,"score":0.32982057332992554},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.2996184825897217},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.29427123069763184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.15679648518562317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46362747","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173431","display_name":"CMOS","level":2,"score":0.11071130633354187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42360764","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83588","display_name":"Chemical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/2866574","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2866574","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S96198239","display_name":"ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems","issn_l":"1550-4832","issn":["1550-4832","1550-4840"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/15","score":0.5400000214576721,"display_name":"Life in Land"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7546595959","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2014-TS-2560","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306087","funder_display_name":"Semiconductor Research Corporation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306087","display_name":"Semiconductor Research Corporation","ror":"https://ror.org/047z4n946"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":41,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1480622876","https://openalex.org/W1487452585","https://openalex.org/W1512315248","https://openalex.org/W1517403092","https://openalex.org/W1519276475","https://openalex.org/W1588877666","https://openalex.org/W1598140169","https://openalex.org/W1717406790","https://openalex.org/W1990107181","https://openalex.org/W1990478559","https://openalex.org/W2014905809","https://openalex.org/W2042731079","https://openalex.org/W2069054567","https://openalex.org/W2092798673","https://openalex.org/W2098543956","https://openalex.org/W2099686261","https://openalex.org/W2107217398","https://openalex.org/W2108324407","https://openalex.org/W2112414127","https://openalex.org/W2113158626","https://openalex.org/W2117188320","https://openalex.org/W2119468274","https://openalex.org/W2134539886","https://openalex.org/W2135033526","https://openalex.org/W2135779185","https://openalex.org/W2142355167","https://openalex.org/W2145640208","https://openalex.org/W2154347069","https://openalex.org/W2154519861","https://openalex.org/W2167352984","https://openalex.org/W2171992767","https://openalex.org/W2177571745","https://openalex.org/W2471224585","https://openalex.org/W2527193322","https://openalex.org/W2540920670","https://openalex.org/W2696718061","https://openalex.org/W2893778669","https://openalex.org/W2973116172","https://openalex.org/W2993084831","https://openalex.org/W3151438815","https://openalex.org/W3198310217"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4378574941","https://openalex.org/W2786245220","https://openalex.org/W236957874","https://openalex.org/W4301368079","https://openalex.org/W2360514482","https://openalex.org/W2005418990","https://openalex.org/W2032644301","https://openalex.org/W2344061241","https://openalex.org/W2109259595","https://openalex.org/W3134956345"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"True":[0],"random":[1,273,347],"number":[2,18,345],"generators":[3,19],"(TRNGs)":[4],"are":[5,67,207,221,292],"crucial":[6],"components":[7],"for":[8,52,343,349],"the":[9,38,53,65,70,81,93,97,107,114,118,124,128,144,148,151,174,180,186,190,224,232,242,253,257,261,297,329],"security":[10,24],"of":[11,37,64,73,80,92,96,106,117,127,136,143,164,173,195,256,346],"cryptographic":[12],"systems.":[13],"In":[14,47],"contrast":[15],"to":[16,87,113,182,188,192],"pseudo--random":[17],"(PRNGs),":[20],"TRNGs":[21,220],"provide":[22],"higher":[23],"by":[25],"extracting":[26],"randomness":[27,306],"from":[28,69,150,281],"physical":[29],"phenomena.":[30],"To":[31],"evaluate":[32],"a":[33,50,74,154,161,165,247,350],"TRNG,":[34],"statistical":[35,78,100,298],"properties":[36],"circuit":[39],"model":[40,51,66,83,155,181,191],"and":[41,90,139,185,216,227,270,284,307,333,340],"raw":[42],"bitstream":[43],"should":[44],"be":[45,157,168,276],"studied.":[46],"this":[48],"article,":[49],"beat":[54],"frequency":[55,115,145],"detector--based":[56],"high-speed":[57],"TRNG":[58,166,332],"(BFD-TRNG)":[59],"is":[60,84,110,229,265,320],"proposed.":[61],"The":[62,170],"parameters":[63],"extracted":[68],"experimental":[71],"data":[72,184],"test":[75,152],"chip.":[76],"A":[77],"analysis":[79,101,299],"proposed":[82,175,225],"carried":[85],"out":[86],"derive":[88],"mean":[89,105,255],"variance":[91],"counter":[94,108,129,258,279,290],"values":[95,109,130,259,291],"TRNG.":[98],"Our":[99],"results":[102,300],"show":[103],"that":[104,197,231,267,302,322,334],"inversely":[111],"proportional":[112],"difference":[116],"two":[119],"ring":[120],"oscillators":[121],"(ROSCs),":[122],"whereas":[123,241],"dynamic":[125,249],"range":[126,250],"increases":[131],"linearly":[132],"with":[133,141],"standard":[134],"deviation":[135],"environmental":[137],"noise":[138],"decreases":[140],"increase":[142],"difference.":[146],"Without":[147],"measurements":[149],"data,":[153],"cannot":[156,167],"created;":[158],"similarly,":[159],"without":[160],"model,":[162,226],"performance":[163,194],"predicted.":[169],"key":[171],"contribution":[172],"approach":[176],"lies":[177],"in":[178,294],"fitting":[179],"measured":[183],"ability":[187],"use":[189],"predict":[193],"BFD-TRNGs":[196,303,323,336],"have":[198,304],"not":[199],"been":[200],"fabricated.":[201],"Several":[202],"novel":[203],"alternate":[204],"BFD-TRNG":[205],"architectures":[206],"also":[208],"proposed;":[209],"these":[210],"include":[211],"parallel":[212,233,282,335],"BFD,":[213,215,286],"cascade":[214,243],"parallel-cascade":[217,285],"BFD.":[218],"These":[219],"analyzed":[222],"using":[223],"it":[228,319],"shown":[230,266,321],"BFD":[234,244,283],"structure":[235,245],"requires":[236],"less":[237,308],"area":[238,342],"per":[239,278,310],"bit,":[240],"has":[246],"larger":[248],"while":[251],"maintaining":[252],"same":[254,344],"as":[260],"original":[262,330],"BFD-TRNG.":[263],"It":[264],"3.25":[268],"M":[269,272,289],"4":[271],"bits":[274,348],"can":[275],"obtained":[277],"value":[280],"respectively,":[287],"where":[288],"computed":[293],"parallel.":[295],"Furthermore,":[296],"illustrate":[301],"better":[305],"cost":[309],"bit":[311],"than":[312,328],"other":[313],"existing":[314],"ROSC-TRNG":[315],"designs.":[316],"For":[317],"example,":[318],"accumulate":[324],"150%":[325],"more":[326],"jitter":[327],"two-oscillator":[331],"require":[337],"one-third":[338],"power":[339],"one-half":[341],"specified":[351],"period.":[352]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}