{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2083913586","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2739482.2764890","title":"Generating Easy and Hard Problems using the Proximate Optimality Principle","display_name":"Generating Easy and Hard Problems using the Proximate Optimality Principle","publication_year":2015,"publication_date":"2015-07-10","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2083913586","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2739482.2764890","mag":"2083913586"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/2739482.2764890","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2739482.2764890","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Companion Publication of the 2015 Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"conference-paper","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/10059/1406","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027645309","display_name":"John McCall","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1738-7056"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I522815984","display_name":"Robert Gordon University","ror":"https://ror.org/04f0qj703","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"John A.W. McCall","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom","Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen. United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen. United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056159379","display_name":"Lee A. Christie","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8878-0344"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I522815984","display_name":"Robert Gordon University","ror":"https://ror.org/04f0qj703","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lee A. Christie","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom","Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen. United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen. United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5041490004","display_name":"Alexander E. I. Brownlee","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2892-5059"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I12093191","display_name":"University of Stirling","ror":"https://ror.org/045wgfr59","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I12093191"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alexander E.I. Brownlee","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I12093191"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"767","last_page":"768"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11975","display_name":"Evolutionary Algorithms and Applications","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11975","display_name":"Evolutionary Algorithms and Applications","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10100","display_name":"Metaheuristic Optimization Algorithms Research","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10848","display_name":"Advanced Multi-Objective Optimization Algorithms","score":0.9983999729156494,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1703","display_name":"Computational Theory and Mathematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hamming-distance","display_name":"Hamming distance","score":0.69005286693573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/coherence","display_name":"Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy)","score":0.6420789957046509},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/space","display_name":"Space (punctuation)","score":0.5701747536659241},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/representation","display_name":"Representation (politics)","score":0.5462311506271362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metric","display_name":"Metric (unit)","score":0.5405364036560059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.4849141240119934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/theoretical-computer-science","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","score":0.4800471067428589},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/string","display_name":"String (physics)","score":0.44850435853004456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.44687822461128235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metric-space","display_name":"Metric space","score":0.4350549280643463},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hamming-space","display_name":"Hamming space","score":0.4192350506782532},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fitness-landscape","display_name":"Fitness landscape","score":0.4129874110221863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hamming-code","display_name":"Hamming code","score":0.4051267206668854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematical-optimization","display_name":"Mathematical optimization","score":0.38876670598983765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.3221568465232849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/discrete-mathematics","display_name":"Discrete mathematics","score":0.2123379111289978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.09088632464408875}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C193319292","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q272172","display_name":"Hamming distance","level":2,"score":0.69005286693573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781181686","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4226068","display_name":"Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy)","level":2,"score":0.6420789957046509},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778572836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380933","display_name":"Space (punctuation)","level":2,"score":0.5701747536659241},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776359362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2145286","display_name":"Representation (politics)","level":3,"score":0.5462311506271362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176217482","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860554","display_name":"Metric (unit)","level":2,"score":0.5405364036560059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4849141240119934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.4800471067428589},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C157486923","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1376436","display_name":"String (physics)","level":2,"score":0.44850435853004456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.44687822461128235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C198043062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180953","display_name":"Metric space","level":2,"score":0.4350549280643463},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779494224","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5645799","display_name":"Hamming space","level":5,"score":0.4192350506782532},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C91852762","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3307742","display_name":"Fitness landscape","level":3,"score":0.4129874110221863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73150493","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853922","display_name":"Hamming code","level":4,"score":0.4051267206668854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126255220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141495","display_name":"Mathematical optimization","level":1,"score":0.38876670598983765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.3221568465232849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118615104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121416","display_name":"Discrete mathematics","level":1,"score":0.2123379111289978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.09088632464408875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21547014","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1423657","display_name":"Operations management","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149923435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37732","display_name":"Demography","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C57273362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q576722","display_name":"Decoding methods","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2908647359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2625603","display_name":"Population","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37914503","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q156495","display_name":"Mathematical physics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94625758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7163","display_name":"Politics","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C157125643","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q884707","display_name":"Block code","level":3,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/2739482.2764890","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2739482.2764890","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Companion Publication of the 2015 Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.720.4691","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.720.4691","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://www.cs.stir.ac.uk/%7Esbr/files/gecco2015-lbp-structureanalysis.pdf","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:openair.rgu.ac.uk:10059/1406","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/10059/1406","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400814","display_name":"Open Access Institutional Repository at Robert Gordon University (Robert Gordon University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I522815984","host_organization_name":"Robert Gordon University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Conference publications"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:openair.rgu.ac.uk:10059/1406","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/10059/1406","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400814","display_name":"Open Access Institutional Repository at Robert Gordon University (Robert Gordon University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I522815984","host_organization_name":"Robert Gordon University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I522815984"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Conference publications"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Sustainable cities and communities","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/11","score":0.7400000095367432}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6794522244","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EP/J017515/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0439y7842"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":11,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1978360379","https://openalex.org/W1988734920","https://openalex.org/W1989974478","https://openalex.org/W2016901117","https://openalex.org/W2017927472","https://openalex.org/W2071881985","https://openalex.org/W2089121210","https://openalex.org/W2114757319","https://openalex.org/W2137154105","https://openalex.org/W2144952620","https://openalex.org/W2162486000"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2371167013","https://openalex.org/W2182731056","https://openalex.org/W2613408642","https://openalex.org/W1519122282","https://openalex.org/W4235868261","https://openalex.org/W2140899540","https://openalex.org/W4380994333","https://openalex.org/W2158117886","https://openalex.org/W3203349595","https://openalex.org/W2998312549"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0,26,53,80,105],"present":[1],"an":[2,82],"approach":[3],"to":[4,108],"generating":[5],"problems":[6,92,112,117],"of":[7,29,34,48,50,85],"variable":[8],"difficulty":[9],"based":[10],"on":[11,77],"the":[12,61,71,94,125],"well-known":[13],"Proximate":[14],"Optimality":[15],"Principle":[16],"(POP),":[17],"often":[18],"paraphrased":[19],"as":[20],"\"similar":[21],"solutions":[22],"have":[23],"similar":[24],"fitness\".":[25],"explore":[27,64],"definitions":[28],"this":[30],"concept":[31],"in":[32,36,40,46,65],"terms":[33,47],"metrics":[35],"objective":[37,78],"space":[38,42,67],"and":[39,43],"representation":[41,66],"define":[44],"POP":[45],"coherence":[49],"these":[51],"metrics.":[52],"hypothesise":[54],"that":[55,110],"algorithms":[56],"will":[57],"perform":[58],"well":[59],"when":[60],"neighbourhoods":[62],"they":[63],"are":[68,113,118],"coherent":[69,99,111],"with":[70,102],"natural":[72,95],"metric":[73,97],"induced":[74],"by":[75],"fitness":[76,96],"space.":[79],"develop":[81],"explicit":[83],"method":[84],"problem":[86],"generation":[87],"which":[88],"creates":[89],"bit":[90],"string":[91],"where":[93],"is":[98],"or":[100],"anti-coherent":[101,116],"Hamming":[103,126],"neighbourhoods.":[104,127],"conduct":[106],"experiments":[107],"show":[109],"easy":[114],"whereas":[115],"hard":[119],"for":[120],"local":[121],"hill":[122],"climbers":[123],"using":[124]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-14T23:27:15.235271","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}