{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2066117401","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2355598.2355599","title":"Comparing face recognition algorithms to humans on challenging tasks","display_name":"Comparing face recognition algorithms to humans on challenging tasks","publication_year":2012,"publication_date":"2012-10-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2066117401","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2355598.2355599","mag":"2066117401"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/2355598.2355599","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2355598.2355599","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S32453091","display_name":"ACM Transactions on Applied Perception","issn_l":"1544-3558","issn":["1544-3558","1544-3965"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Transactions on Applied Perception","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039197772","display_name":"Alice J. O\u2019Toole","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7981-1508"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alice J. O'Toole","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas at Dallas","The University of Texas at Dallas;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5033552825","display_name":"Xaiobo An","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xaiobo An","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas at Dallas","The University of Texas at Dallas;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5014365561","display_name":"Joseph Dunlop","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Joseph Dunlop","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas at Dallas","The University of Texas at Dallas;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5068770904","display_name":"Vaidehi Natu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8012-2822"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vaidehi Natu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas at Dallas","The University of Texas at Dallas;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Dallas;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5047918353","display_name":"P. Jonathon Phillips","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6284-5197"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1321296531","display_name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05xpvk416","country_code":"US","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1321296531","https://openalex.org/I1343035065"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210124755","display_name":"National Institute of Standards","ror":"https://ror.org/02zftm050","country_code":"EG","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210124755"]}],"countries":["EG","US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"P. Jonathon Phillips","raw_affiliation_strings":["National Institute of Standards and Technology","National Institute of Standards and Technology,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1321296531","https://openalex.org/I4210124755"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Institute of Standards and Technology,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1321296531","https://openalex.org/I4210124755"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.5688,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":72,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.89431744,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":"4","first_page":"1","last_page":"13"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11094","display_name":"Face Recognition and Perception","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11094","display_name":"Face Recognition and Perception","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11448","display_name":"Face recognition and analysis","score":0.9983000159263611,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10057","display_name":"Face and Expression Recognition","score":0.9897000193595886,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/similarity","display_name":"Similarity (geometry)","score":0.651099681854248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optimal-distinctiveness-theory","display_name":"Optimal distinctiveness theory","score":0.6503638029098511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identity","display_name":"Identity (music)","score":0.6453796625137329},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6272573471069336},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.5957174301147461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/facial-recognition-system","display_name":"Facial recognition system","score":0.5859979391098022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/face","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","score":0.5775942802429199},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.5636451244354248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ranking","display_name":"Ranking (information retrieval)","score":0.5428377389907837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5339670777320862},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.4964202046394348},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.472293883562088},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.43509429693222046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.39771750569343567},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.3582506775856018},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.20205974578857422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-psychology","display_name":"Social psychology","score":0.0975472629070282}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C103278499","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254465","display_name":"Similarity (geometry)","level":3,"score":0.651099681854248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47385372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7098943","display_name":"Optimal distinctiveness theory","level":2,"score":0.6503638029098511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778355321","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17079427","display_name":"Identity (music)","level":2,"score":0.6453796625137329},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6272573471069336},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5957174301147461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31510193","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1192553","display_name":"Facial recognition system","level":3,"score":0.5859979391098022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.5775942802429199},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.5636451244354248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189430467","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7293293","display_name":"Ranking (information retrieval)","level":2,"score":0.5428377389907837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5339670777320862},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.4964202046394348},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.472293883562088},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.43509429693222046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.39771750569343567},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.3582506775856018},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.20205974578857422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.0975472629070282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24890656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82811","display_name":"Acoustics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36289849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34749","display_name":"Social science","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187736073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2920921","display_name":"Management","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/2355598.2355599","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/2355598.2355599","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S32453091","display_name":"ACM Transactions on Applied Perception","issn_l":"1544-3558","issn":["1544-3558","1544-3965"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Transactions on Applied Perception","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"No poverty","score":0.5600000023841858,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/1"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":31,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W109188758","https://openalex.org/W1486092443","https://openalex.org/W1966951871","https://openalex.org/W1980732600","https://openalex.org/W1981291049","https://openalex.org/W2023169041","https://openalex.org/W2028935480","https://openalex.org/W2038862434","https://openalex.org/W2060424462","https://openalex.org/W2061485536","https://openalex.org/W2084652052","https://openalex.org/W2101790396","https://openalex.org/W2106700140","https://openalex.org/W2109786901","https://openalex.org/W2132254817","https://openalex.org/W2133295669","https://openalex.org/W2137659841","https://openalex.org/W2144143728","https://openalex.org/W2145601051","https://openalex.org/W2150114777","https://openalex.org/W2152433273","https://openalex.org/W2159369772","https://openalex.org/W2160719354","https://openalex.org/W2163035264","https://openalex.org/W2168505921","https://openalex.org/W2541839572","https://openalex.org/W2744641580","https://openalex.org/W2789848387","https://openalex.org/W4247611944","https://openalex.org/W4253776081","https://openalex.org/W4255611398"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4225552138","https://openalex.org/W2032875729","https://openalex.org/W3046185751","https://openalex.org/W2475308993","https://openalex.org/W2790526747","https://openalex.org/W2477273251","https://openalex.org/W2069575426","https://openalex.org/W3002212064","https://openalex.org/W2113267837","https://openalex.org/W2384651879"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0,272],"compared":[1],"face":[2,63,79,261],"identification":[3],"by":[4,70,83,123],"humans":[5,47,173,207,218,238,253,280],"and":[6,21,48,72,104,119,132,181,211,232,239],"machines":[7,49,240,247],"using":[8,77],"images":[9,189,258],"taken":[10],"under":[11],"a":[12,27,78,89,99,169],"variety":[13],"of":[14,43,53,60,67,102,144,150,153,171,191,277,293],"uncontrolled":[15],"illumination":[16],"conditions":[17,235,285],"in":[18,26,58,208,219,281,313],"both":[19],"indoor":[20],"outdoor":[22],"settings.":[23],"Natural":[24],"variations":[25],"person's":[28],"day-to-day":[29],"appearance":[30],"(e.g.,":[31],"hair":[32],"style,":[33],"facial":[34],"expression,":[35],"hats,":[36],"glasses,":[37],"etc.)":[38],"contributed":[39],"to":[40,114,217,289,306],"the":[41,44,51,125,142,148,151,166,178,185,188,192,209,220,228,275,282,290],"difficulty":[42,68],"task.":[45],"Both":[46],"matched":[50,174],"identity":[52,130,161,296],"people":[54],"(same":[55],"or":[56],"different)":[57],"pairs":[59,111,176],"frontal":[61,257],"view":[62],"images.":[64,109],"The":[65,93,244],"degree":[66],"introduced":[69],"photometric":[71,145],"appearance-based":[73,233],"variability":[74],"was":[75],"estimated":[76],"recognition":[80,234,262],"algorithm":[81,94],"created":[82],"fusing":[84],"three":[85,137],"top-performing":[86],"algorithms":[87,278],"from":[88,107,147,177],"recent":[90],"international":[91],"competition.":[92],"computed":[95],"similarity":[96,126],"scores":[97,127],"for":[98,128,158,267,310],"constant":[100,160],"set":[101],"same-identity":[103],"different-identity":[105],"pairings":[106,162],"multiple":[108],"Image":[110],"were":[112,190,203,215,248],"assigned":[113],"good":[115,210],",":[116,118],"moderate":[117,212],"poor":[120,182,221],"accuracy":[121,222],"groups":[122],"ranking":[124],"each":[129],"pairing,":[131],"dividing":[133],"these":[134,159,226,255],"rankings":[135],"into":[136],"strata.":[138],"This":[139],"procedure":[140],"isolated":[141],"role":[143],"variables":[146],"effects":[149],"distinctiveness":[152],"particular":[154],"identities.":[155],"Algorithm":[156],"performance":[157],"varied":[163],"dramatically":[164],"across":[165],"groups.":[167],"In":[168],"series":[170],"experiments,":[172],"image":[175],"good,":[179],"moderate,":[180],"conditions,":[183,213],"rating":[184],"likelihood":[186],"that":[187,246,260,274],"same":[193,197],"person":[194],"(1:":[195],"sure":[196,200],"-":[198],"5:":[199],"different).":[201],"Algorithms":[202],"more":[204],"accurate":[205,251],"than":[206,252],"but":[214],"comparable":[216,270],"condition.":[223],"To":[224],"date,":[225],"are":[227],"most":[229],"variable":[230],"illumination-":[231],"on":[236,254],"which":[237],"have":[241],"been":[242],"compared.":[243],"finding":[245],"never":[249],"less":[250,283,303],"challenging":[256,284],"suggests":[259],"systems":[263],"may":[264,286,299],"be":[265,287],"ready":[266],"applications":[268],"with":[269],"difficulty.":[271],"speculate":[273],"superiority":[276],"over":[279],"due":[288,305],"algorithms'":[291],"use":[292],"detailed,":[294],"view-specific":[295],"information.":[297],"Humans":[298],"consider":[300],"this":[301],"information":[302],"important":[304],"its":[307],"limited":[308],"potential":[309],"robust":[311],"generalization":[312],"suboptimal":[314],"viewing":[315],"conditions.":[316]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":6}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
