{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2149551320","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/1141753.1141776","title":"A hierarchical, HMM-based automatic evaluation of OCR accuracy for a digital library of books","display_name":"A hierarchical, HMM-based automatic evaluation of OCR accuracy for a digital library of books","publication_year":2006,"publication_date":"2006-06-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2149551320","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/1141753.1141776","mag":"2149551320"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/1141753.1141776","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/1141753.1141776","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://works.bepress.com/r_manmatha/7/download/","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109910347","display_name":"Shaolei Feng","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I24603500","display_name":"University of Massachusetts Amherst","ror":"https://ror.org/0072zz521","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I24603500"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Shaolei Feng","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I24603500"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055459215","display_name":"R. Manmatha","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2315-8583"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I24603500","display_name":"University of Massachusetts Amherst","ror":"https://ror.org/0072zz521","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I24603500"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"R. Manmatha","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I24603500"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5109910347"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I24603500"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.7941,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":47,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9405096,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"109","last_page":"118"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10601","display_name":"Handwritten Text Recognition Techniques","score":0.9995999932289124,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10601","display_name":"Handwritten Text Recognition Techniques","score":0.9995999932289124,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10627","display_name":"Advanced Image and Video Retrieval Techniques","score":0.9947999715805054,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10824","display_name":"Image Retrieval and Classification Techniques","score":0.9937000274658203,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optical-character-recognition","display_name":"Optical character recognition","score":0.8545417785644531},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ascii","display_name":"ASCII","score":0.7808131575584412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7708156108856201},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hidden-markov-model","display_name":"Hidden Markov model","score":0.6974450945854187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ground-truth","display_name":"Ground truth","score":0.565423846244812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5247081518173218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process","display_name":"Process (computing)","score":0.5144076943397522},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-retrieval","display_name":"Information retrieval","score":0.49271300435066223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/character","display_name":"Character (mathematics)","score":0.486304372549057},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/digital-library","display_name":"Digital library","score":0.4730835556983948},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.42495888471603394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variety","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","score":0.4217357933521271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/font","display_name":"Font","score":0.4170938730239868},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/speech-recognition","display_name":"Speech recognition","score":0.33967769145965576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.22287586331367493},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.1078803539276123}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C546480517","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q167555","display_name":"Optical character recognition","level":3,"score":0.8545417785644531},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C196832560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8815","display_name":"ASCII","level":2,"score":0.7808131575584412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7708156108856201},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23224414","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176769","display_name":"Hidden Markov model","level":2,"score":0.6974450945854187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146849305","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q370766","display_name":"Ground truth","level":2,"score":0.565423846244812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5247081518173218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.5144076943397522},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23123220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816826","display_name":"Information retrieval","level":1,"score":0.49271300435066223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780861071","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062934","display_name":"Character (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.486304372549057},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C513874922","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212805","display_name":"Digital library","level":3,"score":0.4730835556983948},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.42495888471603394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136197465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1729295","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","level":2,"score":0.4217357933521271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777737414","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4868296","display_name":"Font","level":2,"score":0.4170938730239868},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.33967769145965576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.22287586331367493},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.1078803539276123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142362112","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735","display_name":"Art","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124952713","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8242","display_name":"Literature","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C164913051","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q482","display_name":"Poetry","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/1141753.1141776","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/1141753.1141776","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:works.bepress.com:r_manmatha-1013","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://works.bepress.com/r_manmatha/7","pdf_url":"https://works.bepress.com/r_manmatha/7/download/","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402240","display_name":"ScholarWorks@UMassAmherst (University of Massachusetts Amherst)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I24603500","host_organization_name":"University of Massachusetts Amherst","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I24603500"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"R. Manmatha","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.152.3929","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.152.3929","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://ciir.cs.umass.edu/pubfiles/mm-489.pdf","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.856.2490","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.856.2490","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://works.bepress.com/r_manmatha/7/download/","raw_type":"text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:works.bepress.com:r_manmatha-1013","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://works.bepress.com/r_manmatha/7","pdf_url":"https://works.bepress.com/r_manmatha/7/download/","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402240","display_name":"ScholarWorks@UMassAmherst (University of Massachusetts Amherst)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I24603500","host_organization_name":"University of Massachusetts Amherst","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I24603500"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"R. Manmatha","raw_type":"text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.49000000953674316}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2149551320.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2149551320.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":22,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W19095633","https://openalex.org/W98894605","https://openalex.org/W1491083719","https://openalex.org/W1970026646","https://openalex.org/W1991133427","https://openalex.org/W2062526508","https://openalex.org/W2074231493","https://openalex.org/W2087064593","https://openalex.org/W2098875891","https://openalex.org/W2102122585","https://openalex.org/W2105594594","https://openalex.org/W2121839820","https://openalex.org/W2131132193","https://openalex.org/W2131673214","https://openalex.org/W2138584836","https://openalex.org/W2140347408","https://openalex.org/W2147986355","https://openalex.org/W2158052399","https://openalex.org/W2605292831","https://openalex.org/W2608840121","https://openalex.org/W2997195443","https://openalex.org/W4229971152"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W629813691","https://openalex.org/W2147687867","https://openalex.org/W2582695981","https://openalex.org/W2496907786","https://openalex.org/W3205782414","https://openalex.org/W2021368897","https://openalex.org/W2039452999","https://openalex.org/W2970150031","https://openalex.org/W4241373955","https://openalex.org/W2801595672"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"A":[0],"number":[1],"of":[2,9,63,73,104,143,155,177,180,185,237,245,283,292],"projects":[3],"are":[4,66,70,77],"creating":[5],"searchable":[6],"digital":[7],"libraries":[8],"printed":[10,38],"books.":[11,208],"These":[12],"include":[13],"the":[14,18,60,90,117,136,140,153,175,186,204,213,235,243,281,296],"Million":[15],"Book":[16,20],"Project,":[17],"Google":[19],"project":[21],"and":[22,27,53,68,97,203,254],"similar":[23],"efforts":[24],"from":[25],"Yahoo":[26],"Microsoft.":[28],"Content-based":[29],"on":[30,59,107,116,295],"line":[31],"book":[32,108,119,221,225],"retrieval":[33],"usually":[34],"requires":[35],"first":[36,214],"converting":[37],"text":[39,45,57],"into":[40,242],"machine":[41],"readable":[42],"(e.g.":[43],"ASCII)":[44],"using":[46,223],"an":[47,81],"optical":[48],"character":[49],"recognition":[50,275],"(OCR)":[51],"engine":[52,287],"then":[54],"doing":[55],"full":[56],"search":[58],"results.":[61,298],"Many":[62],"these":[64],"books":[65,293],"old":[67],"there":[69],"a":[71,99,144,160,190,219,273,284,289],"variety":[72],"processing":[74],"steps":[75],"that":[76,260],"required":[78],"to":[79,83,152,199,216],"create":[80],"end":[82,84],"system.":[85],"Changing":[86],"any":[87,224],"step":[88],"(including":[89],"scanning":[91],"process)":[92],"can":[93,251],"affect":[94],"OCR":[95,105,114,137,170,201,270,286],"performance":[96,106,115,282],"hence":[98],"good":[100],"automatic":[101],"statistical":[102],"evaluation":[103],"length":[109,142],"material":[110,182],"is":[111,120,166,212],"needed.":[112],"Evaluating":[113],"entire":[118,141],"non-trivial.":[121],"The":[122,164,228],"only":[123],"easily":[124],"obtainable":[125],"ground":[126,205],"truth":[127,206],"(the":[128],"Gutenberg":[129],"e-texts)":[130],"must":[131],"be":[132,148,252],"automatically":[133,217],"aligned":[134],"with":[135],"output":[138,202,271],"over":[139,288],"book.":[145],"This":[146,250],"may":[147],"viewed":[149],"as":[150,172,174],"equivalent":[151],"problem":[154,165,236,244],"aligning":[156,238,246],"two":[157,239],"large":[158,178,290],"(easily":[159],"million":[161],"long)":[162],"sequences.":[163,187],"further":[167],"complicated":[168],"by":[169,232],"errors":[171],"well":[173,267],"possibility":[176],"chunks":[179],"missing":[181],"in":[183],"one":[184],"We":[188,209],"propose":[189],"Hidden":[191],"Markov":[192],"Model":[193],"(HMM)":[194],"based":[195,294],"hierarchical":[196,262],"alignment":[197,229,263,297],"algorithm":[198],"align":[200,218],"for":[207],"believe":[210],"this":[211],"work":[215],"whole":[220],"without":[222],"structure":[226],"information.":[227],"process":[230],"works":[231,265],"breaking":[233],"up":[234],"long":[240],"sequences":[241],"many":[247],"smaller":[248],"subsequences.":[249],"rapidly":[253],"effectively":[255],"done.":[256],"Experimental":[257],"results":[258],"show":[259],"our":[261],"approach":[264],"very":[266],"even":[268],"if":[269],"has":[272],"high":[274],"error":[276],"rate.":[277],"Finally,":[278],"we":[279],"evaluate":[280],"commercial":[285],"dataset":[291]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-04-05T17:49:38.594831","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
