{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7164399543","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.70481","title":"SPINE: VAE\u2010driven Counterfactuals for Decision Boundary Maps","display_name":"SPINE: VAE\u2010driven Counterfactuals for Decision Boundary Maps","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-06-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7164399543","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.70481"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1111/cgf.70481","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.70481","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S67831204","display_name":"Computer Graphics Forum","issn_l":"0167-7055","issn":["0167-7055","1467-8659"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computer Graphics Forum","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.70481","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5138403772","display_name":"I.M. Bloemen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8609-2254"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I83019370","display_name":"Eindhoven University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02c2kyt77","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I83019370"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"I.M. Bloemen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Eindhoven University of Technology  The Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8609-2254","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Eindhoven University of Technology  The Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I83019370"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5029380813","display_name":"Vidya Prasad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9296-3693"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I83019370","display_name":"Eindhoven University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02c2kyt77","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I83019370"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"V. Prasad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Eindhoven University of Technology  The Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9296-3693","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Eindhoven University of Technology  The Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I83019370"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009099532","display_name":"Fernando V. Paulovich","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2316-760X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I83019370","display_name":"Eindhoven University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02c2kyt77","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I83019370"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"F. V. Paulovich","raw_affiliation_strings":["Eindhoven University of Technology  The Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2316-760X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Eindhoven University of Technology  The Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I83019370"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I83019370"],"apc_list":{"value":3710,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3710},"apc_paid":{"value":3710,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3710},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.74894173,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.9617000222206116,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.9617000222206116,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10799","display_name":"Data Visualization and Analytics","score":0.007400000002235174,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10775","display_name":"Generative Adversarial Networks and Image Synthesis","score":0.0052999998442828655,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/counterfactual-conditional","display_name":"Counterfactual conditional","score":0.628000020980835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/decision-boundary","display_name":"Decision boundary","score":0.6222000122070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/classifier","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","score":0.5968999862670898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/maxima-and-minima","display_name":"Maxima and minima","score":0.5175999999046326},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/counterfactual-thinking","display_name":"Counterfactual thinking","score":0.48890000581741333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/differentiable-function","display_name":"Differentiable function","score":0.460099995136261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/boundary","display_name":"Boundary (topology)","score":0.450300008058548},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lipschitz-continuity","display_name":"Lipschitz continuity","score":0.4036000072956085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.3977000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/discriminative-model","display_name":"Discriminative model","score":0.3549000024795532}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6328999996185303},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71889745","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1783264","display_name":"Counterfactual conditional","level":3,"score":0.628000020980835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42023084","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5249231","display_name":"Decision boundary","level":3,"score":0.6222000122070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.5968999862670898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5375000238418579},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186633575","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q845060","display_name":"Maxima and minima","level":2,"score":0.5175999999046326},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108650721","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1783253","display_name":"Counterfactual thinking","level":2,"score":0.48890000581741333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202615002","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q783507","display_name":"Differentiable function","level":2,"score":0.460099995136261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62354387","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q875399","display_name":"Boundary (topology)","level":2,"score":0.450300008058548},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22324862","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q652707","display_name":"Lipschitz continuity","level":2,"score":0.4036000072956085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.3977000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.36320000886917114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97931131","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5282087","display_name":"Discriminative model","level":2,"score":0.3549000024795532},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207467116","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4385666","display_name":"Inverse","level":2,"score":0.35109999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.3465999960899353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C135252773","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1567213","display_name":"Inverse problem","level":2,"score":0.34049999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36464697","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q451553","display_name":"Visualization","level":2,"score":0.32179999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161677786","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2478475","display_name":"Neighbourhood (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.32030001282691956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165216359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q670653","display_name":"Marginal distribution","level":3,"score":0.30570000410079956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3010999858379364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.30070000886917114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21080849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13611879","display_name":"Data point","level":2,"score":0.29339998960494995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84525736","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831366","display_name":"Decision tree","level":2,"score":0.2912999987602234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2903999984264374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27753989","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q284885","display_name":"Superposition principle","level":2,"score":0.287200003862381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.2870999872684479},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137800194","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11713455","display_name":"Interpolation (computer graphics)","level":3,"score":0.27129998803138733},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C1893757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3653001","display_name":"Inversion (geology)","level":3,"score":0.2711000144481659},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106131492","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3072260","display_name":"Filter (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.2689000070095062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777021972","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22976830","display_name":"Uniqueness","level":2,"score":0.2628999948501587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107327155","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q330268","display_name":"Decision support system","level":2,"score":0.26010000705718994},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777303404","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759757","display_name":"Convergence (economics)","level":2,"score":0.2596000134944916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59594135","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5249242","display_name":"Decision model","level":2,"score":0.2563999891281128},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C53533937","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185020","display_name":"Histogram","level":3,"score":0.25279998779296875}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1111/cgf.70481","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.70481","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S67831204","display_name":"Computer Graphics Forum","issn_l":"0167-7055","issn":["0167-7055","1467-8659"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computer Graphics Forum","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1111/cgf.70481","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.70481","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S67831204","display_name":"Computer Graphics Forum","issn_l":"0167-7055","issn":["0167-7055","1467-8659"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computer Graphics Forum","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":39,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1965555277","https://openalex.org/W1980276779","https://openalex.org/W1987971958","https://openalex.org/W2003048487","https://openalex.org/W2042699031","https://openalex.org/W2047010542","https://openalex.org/W2057911371","https://openalex.org/W2130695501","https://openalex.org/W2132149726","https://openalex.org/W2162825485","https://openalex.org/W2165558283","https://openalex.org/W2512304460","https://openalex.org/W2807795618","https://openalex.org/W2889326414","https://openalex.org/W2891503716","https://openalex.org/W2910916469","https://openalex.org/W2921752014","https://openalex.org/W2945295328","https://openalex.org/W2948978827","https://openalex.org/W2958874938","https://openalex.org/W2972193535","https://openalex.org/W2975605169","https://openalex.org/W2981731882","https://openalex.org/W3131454486","https://openalex.org/W3183198896","https://openalex.org/W3202810143","https://openalex.org/W3211639647","https://openalex.org/W3212838649","https://openalex.org/W4212900831","https://openalex.org/W4296425813","https://openalex.org/W4317538237","https://openalex.org/W4378746207","https://openalex.org/W4385516892","https://openalex.org/W4386617588","https://openalex.org/W4386798599","https://openalex.org/W4392402577","https://openalex.org/W4399491768","https://openalex.org/W4402788370","https://openalex.org/W6888801710"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"As":[1],"Deep":[2],"Learning":[3],"models":[4],"become":[5],"increasingly":[6],"complex,":[7],"Explainable":[8],"AI":[9],"becomes":[10],"essential":[11],"for":[12,24,94],"deploying":[13],"machine":[14],"learning":[15],"classifiers.":[16],"Decision":[17],"Boundary":[18],"Mapping":[19],"(DBM)":[20],"is":[21,98],"a":[22,26,90],"technique":[23],"visualizing":[25],"classifier's":[27,146],"global":[28,40],"decision":[29,114],"boundary.":[30],"Despite":[31],"their":[32],"relative":[33],"success,":[34],"current":[35],"DBM":[36,92,167],"methods":[37],"rely":[38],"on":[39,58,104],"inverse":[41,105],"multidimensional":[42],"projections":[43],"that":[44,97,132],"map":[45],"2D":[46],"points":[47,111],"back":[48],"to":[49,80,125],"the":[50,59,65,70,113,137,142,145,152],"input":[51,71],"space.":[52],"The":[53],"resulting":[54],"visualizations":[55],"depend":[56,103],"heavily":[57],"chosen":[60],"projection,":[61],"distort":[62],"elements":[63],"of":[64,69,141,162],"structure":[66,138],"and":[67,73,100,118,139,144,158,179],"distribution":[68,140],"data,":[72],"contain":[74],"limited":[75],"classifier\u2010specific":[76],"information,":[77],"often":[78],"leading":[79],"inaccurate":[81],"boundaries.":[82],"We":[83],"propose":[84],"Sampling\u2010based":[85],"Precise":[86],"Neighbourhood":[87],"Estimation":[88],"(SPINE),":[89],"novel":[91],"approach":[93],"differentiable":[95],"classifiers":[96],"projection\u2010agnostic":[99],"does":[101],"not":[102],"projections.":[106],"SPINE":[107,169],"generates":[108],"additional":[109,171],"high\u2010dimensional":[110],"near":[112],"boundary":[115,149],"using":[116],"counterfactuals":[117],"variational":[119],"autoencoders,":[120],"then":[121],"applies":[122],"local":[123],"interpolation":[124],"build":[126],"visual":[127],"representations.":[128],"Our":[129],"results":[130],"show":[131],"this":[133],"strategy":[134],"better":[135],"captures":[136],"data":[143],"predictions":[147],"in":[148,154],"regions":[150],"than":[151],"state\u2010of\u2010the\u2010art":[153],"DBMs,":[155],"yielding":[156],"higher\u2010resolution":[157],"more":[159],"accurate":[160],"representations":[161],"classifier":[163],"behaviour.":[164],"Beyond":[165],"standard":[166],"representations,":[168],"enables":[170],"exploratory":[172],"analyses,":[173],"such":[174],"as":[175],"counterfactual":[176],"feature":[177],"changes":[178],"path":[180],"visualizations,":[181],"supporting":[182],"richer":[183],"insights":[184],"into":[185],"model":[186],"decisions.":[187]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-12T06:25:57.316018","created_date":"2026-06-12T00:00:00"}
