{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2065771650","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tpc.2014.2312452","title":"Partial Least Squares (PLS) Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) for Building and Testing Behavioral Causal Theory: When to Choose It and How to Use It","display_name":"Partial Least Squares (PLS) Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) for Building and Testing Behavioral Causal Theory: When to Choose It and How to Use It","publication_year":2014,"publication_date":"2014-04-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2065771650","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tpc.2014.2312452","mag":"2065771650"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tpc.2014.2312452","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tpc.2014.2312452","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S90277605","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication","issn_l":"0361-1434","issn":["0361-1434","1558-1500"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009502121","display_name":"Paul Benjamin Lowry","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0187-5808"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I168719708","display_name":"City University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/03q8dnn23","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I168719708"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Paul Benjamin Lowry","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Systems, College of Business, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, China","Department of Information Systems College of Business, City University of Hong Kong Kowloon Tong Hong Kong, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Systems, College of Business, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I168719708"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Systems College of Business, City University of Hong Kong Kowloon Tong Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I168719708"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027277625","display_name":"James Gaskin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2812-2419"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I100005738","display_name":"Brigham Young University","ror":"https://ror.org/047rhhm47","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I100005738"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"James Gaskin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Systems, Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah","Department of Information Systems, Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University, Provo"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Systems, Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I100005738"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Systems, Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University, Provo","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I100005738"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5009502121"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I168719708"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":206.4305,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1838,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99977966,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"57","issue":"2","first_page":"123","last_page":"146"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10068","display_name":"Technology Adoption and User Behaviour","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1802","display_name":"Information Systems and Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10068","display_name":"Technology Adoption and User Behaviour","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1802","display_name":"Information Systems and Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10154","display_name":"Customer Service Quality and Loyalty","score":0.9898999929428101,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1407","display_name":"Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11542","display_name":"Behavioral Health and Interventions","score":0.9632999897003174,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3202","display_name":"Applied Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/structural-equation-modeling","display_name":"Structural equation modeling","score":0.881686806678772},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/partial-least-squares-regression","display_name":"Partial least squares regression","score":0.7344397306442261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/causal-model","display_name":"Causal model","score":0.6911754012107849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/covariance","display_name":"Covariance","score":0.6397072672843933},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5139989256858826},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.4669690430164337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/contrast","display_name":"Contrast (vision)","score":0.44024574756622314},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/formative-assessment","display_name":"Formative assessment","score":0.4391062557697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistical-hypothesis-testing","display_name":"Statistical hypothesis testing","score":0.4363253116607666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/confirmatory-factor-analysis","display_name":"Confirmatory factor analysis","score":0.41947656869888306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.4000096321105957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.36189186573028564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.27805227041244507},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.2530761957168579}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71104824","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1476639","display_name":"Structural equation modeling","level":2,"score":0.881686806678772},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22354355","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q422009","display_name":"Partial least squares regression","level":2,"score":0.7344397306442261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11671645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5054567","display_name":"Causal model","level":2,"score":0.6911754012107849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178650346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201984","display_name":"Covariance","level":2,"score":0.6397072672843933},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5139989256858826},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.4669690430164337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776502983","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q690182","display_name":"Contrast (vision)","level":2,"score":0.44024574756622314},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42525527","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1209955","display_name":"Formative assessment","level":2,"score":0.4391062557697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C87007009","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210832","display_name":"Statistical hypothesis testing","level":2,"score":0.4363253116607666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40722632","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5160137","display_name":"Confirmatory factor analysis","level":3,"score":0.41947656869888306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4000096321105957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.36189186573028564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.27805227041244507},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.2530761957168579},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tpc.2014.2312452","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tpc.2014.2312452","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S90277605","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication","issn_l":"0361-1434","issn":["0361-1434","1558-1500"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:hub.hku.hk:10722/233840","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/10722/233840","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196271","display_name":"The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I889458895","host_organization_name":"University of Hong Kong","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I889458895"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":87,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W33227584","https://openalex.org/W116282327","https://openalex.org/W415541256","https://openalex.org/W1496783311","https://openalex.org/W1520714623","https://openalex.org/W1527741802","https://openalex.org/W1548865438","https://openalex.org/W1577217250","https://openalex.org/W1595575146","https://openalex.org/W1608836379","https://openalex.org/W1822536190","https://openalex.org/W1849190772","https://openalex.org/W1971136811","https://openalex.org/W1971440513","https://openalex.org/W1975580288","https://openalex.org/W1979422830","https://openalex.org/W1988050849","https://openalex.org/W1995626979","https://openalex.org/W1996524215","https://openalex.org/W2009561702","https://openalex.org/W2012768495","https://openalex.org/W2017806383","https://openalex.org/W2020940444","https://openalex.org/W2027892485","https://openalex.org/W2032037652","https://openalex.org/W2042536881","https://openalex.org/W2044841475","https://openalex.org/W2049159124","https://openalex.org/W2052194544","https://openalex.org/W2055280086","https://openalex.org/W2057643324","https://openalex.org/W2059643539","https://openalex.org/W2060677664","https://openalex.org/W2065502371","https://openalex.org/W2065618844","https://openalex.org/W2074985962","https://openalex.org/W2083045424","https://openalex.org/W2085858435","https://openalex.org/W2088038847","https://openalex.org/W2092288879","https://openalex.org/W2098685541","https://openalex.org/W2101984817","https://openalex.org/W2102633097","https://openalex.org/W2106096361","https://openalex.org/W2108826260","https://openalex.org/W2109813322","https://openalex.org/W2116511981","https://openalex.org/W2121871221","https://openalex.org/W2124421215","https://openalex.org/W2125326971","https://openalex.org/W2126513792","https://openalex.org/W2127450621","https://openalex.org/W2128640919","https://openalex.org/W2128738510","https://openalex.org/W2132747867","https://openalex.org/W2135864917","https://openalex.org/W2138960000","https://openalex.org/W2143263668","https://openalex.org/W2143509764","https://openalex.org/W2146410840","https://openalex.org/W2148504699","https://openalex.org/W2150384762","https://openalex.org/W2150947374","https://openalex.org/W2153672459","https://openalex.org/W2155225996","https://openalex.org/W2155906073","https://openalex.org/W2156469077","https://openalex.org/W2160036953","https://openalex.org/W2163890779","https://openalex.org/W2171828888","https://openalex.org/W2184176338","https://openalex.org/W2397705735","https://openalex.org/W3121130321","https://openalex.org/W3121228593","https://openalex.org/W3123022977","https://openalex.org/W3123319988","https://openalex.org/W3125083597","https://openalex.org/W3125449341","https://openalex.org/W3125491696","https://openalex.org/W3140593190","https://openalex.org/W3147343449","https://openalex.org/W3149890732","https://openalex.org/W4233112963","https://openalex.org/W4292811746","https://openalex.org/W6682944822","https://openalex.org/W6686526552","https://openalex.org/W6712911114"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W609482051","https://openalex.org/W4386050096","https://openalex.org/W3199325201","https://openalex.org/W2792035366","https://openalex.org/W2360976019","https://openalex.org/W2351166673","https://openalex.org/W2390109066","https://openalex.org/W2349355552","https://openalex.org/W2727339424","https://openalex.org/W2410921486"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Problem:":[0],"Partial":[1],"least":[2],"squares":[3],"(PLS),":[4],"a":[5],"form":[6],"of":[7,29,93,114,149,237,244],"structural":[8],"equation":[9],"modeling":[10,109,161],"(SEM),":[11],"can":[12],"provide":[13,50],"much":[14],"value":[15],"for":[16,142,157,175,203,213,226],"causal":[17,115,160],"inquiry":[18],"in":[19,44,46,67,75,79,112,209,220],"communication-related":[20],"and":[21,36,60,130,166,240],"behavioral":[22,35,68,167],"research":[23],"fields.":[24],"Despite":[25,196],"the":[26,140,158,210],"wide":[27],"availability":[28],"technical":[30],"information":[31],"on":[32],"PLS,":[33,204],"many":[34],"communication":[37,165],"researchers":[38],"often":[39,73],"do":[40,137],"not":[41,138],"use":[42],"PLS":[43,181,192],"situations":[45],"which":[47],"it":[48],"could":[49],"unique":[51],"theoretical":[52],"insights.":[53],"Moreover,":[54],"complex":[55,159,227,247],"models":[56,228],"comprising":[57],"formative":[58,179,234],"(causal)":[59],"reflective":[61],"(consequent)":[62],"constructs":[63],"are":[64,72,155],"now":[65],"common":[66],"research,":[69],"but":[70],"they":[71,154],"misspecified":[74],"statistical":[76],"models,":[77],"resulting":[78],"erroneous":[80],"tests.":[81],"Key":[82,169],"concepts:":[83],"First-generation":[84],"(1G)":[85],"techniques,":[86],"such":[87],"as":[88,97,122],"correlations,":[89],"regressions,":[90],"or":[91,99,125,174,191],"difference":[92],"means":[94],"tests":[95],"(such":[96,121],"ANOVA":[98],"<formula":[100],"formulatype=\"inline\"":[101],"xmlns:mml=\"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML\"":[102],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\"><tex":[103],"Notation=\"TeX\">${\\rm":[104],"t}$</tex></formula>":[105],"-tests),":[106],"offer":[107,127],"limited":[108],"capabilities,":[110],"particularly":[111],"terms":[113],"modeling.":[116,221],"In":[117,222],"contrast,":[118],"second-generation":[119],"techniques":[120,136,144,151],"covariance-based":[123,189],"SEM":[124,190,224],"PLS)":[126],"extensive,":[128],"scalable,":[129],"flexible":[131],"causal-modeling":[132],"capabilities.":[133],"Second-generation":[134],"(2G)":[135],"invalidate":[139],"need":[141],"1G":[143],"however.":[145],"The":[146],"key":[147],"point":[148],"2G":[150],"is":[152,219],"that":[153,162,177,198,229],"superior":[156],"dominates":[163],"recent":[164],"research.":[168],"lessons:":[170],"For":[171,185],"exploratory":[172],"work,":[173,187],"studies":[176],"include":[178,230],"constructs,":[180],"should":[182],"be":[183,194],"selected.":[184],"confirmatory":[186],"either":[188,214],"may":[193],"used.":[195],"claims":[197],"lower":[199],"sampling":[200],"requirements":[201],"exist":[202],"inadequate":[205],"sample":[206],"sizes":[207],"result":[208],"same":[211],"problems":[212],"technique.":[215],"Implications:":[216],"SEM's":[217],"strength":[218],"particular,":[223],"allows":[225],"latent":[231],"(unobserved)":[232],"variables,":[233,235],"chains":[236],"effects":[238],"(mediation),":[239],"multiple":[241],"group":[242],"comparisons":[243],"these":[245],"more":[246],"relationships.":[248]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":60},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":200},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":195},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":214},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":229},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":206},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":198},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":156},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":146},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":98},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":69},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":55},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":12}],"updated_date":"2026-05-17T08:19:37.847499","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}