{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7126071015","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/srds69199.2025.00021","title":"ENSI: Efficient Non-Interactive Secure Inference for Large Language Models","display_name":"ENSI: Efficient Non-Interactive Secure Inference for Large Language Models","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-29","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7126071015","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/srds69199.2025.00021"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/srds69199.2025.00021","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/srds69199.2025.00021","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2025 44th International Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems (SRDS)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124268689","display_name":"Zhiyu He","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Zhiyu He","raw_affiliation_strings":["National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124197525","display_name":"Maojiang Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maojiang Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101072072","display_name":"Xinwen Gao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xinwen Gao","raw_affiliation_strings":["National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122255348","display_name":"Y. Luo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuchuan Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100707813","display_name":"Lin Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0021-4239"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lin Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124237372","display_name":"Shaojing Fu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shaojing Fu","raw_affiliation_strings":["National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National University of Defense Technology,College of Computer Science and Technology,Changsha,Hunan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5124268689"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.8738133,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"83","last_page":"94"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9369000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9369000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.030799999833106995,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14347","display_name":"Big Data and Digital Economy","score":0.007000000216066837,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bootstrapping","display_name":"Bootstrapping (finance)","score":0.6621000170707703},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inference","display_name":"Inference","score":0.597599983215332},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.5705000162124634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.5473999977111816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/softmax-function","display_name":"Softmax function","score":0.5382000207901001},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptographic-primitive","display_name":"Cryptographic primitive","score":0.48730000853538513},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.45809999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptographic-protocol","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","score":0.44269999861717224}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8127999901771545},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207609745","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4944086","display_name":"Bootstrapping (finance)","level":2,"score":0.6621000170707703},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776214188","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408386","display_name":"Inference","level":2,"score":0.597599983215332},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.5705000162124634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.5473999977111816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188441871","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7554146","display_name":"Softmax function","level":3,"score":0.5382000207901001},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.5166000127792358},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15927051","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q246593","display_name":"Cryptographic primitive","level":4,"score":0.48730000853538513},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.45809999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33884865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1254335","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","level":3,"score":0.44269999861717224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179799912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205084","display_name":"Computational complexity theory","level":2,"score":0.4327000081539154},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17349429","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1049914","display_name":"Matrix multiplication","level":3,"score":0.40799999237060547},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41608201","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q980509","display_name":"Embedding","level":2,"score":0.3707999885082245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111219384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6954384","display_name":"NIST","level":2,"score":0.34549999237060547},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C57273362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q576722","display_name":"Decoding methods","level":2,"score":0.33559998869895935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C68339613","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1549489","display_name":"Speedup","level":2,"score":0.31929999589920044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118463975","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220849","display_name":"Digital signature","level":3,"score":0.3160000145435333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.3061999976634979},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45374587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12525525","display_name":"Computation","level":2,"score":0.3025999963283539},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55166926","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2892946","display_name":"Oracle","level":2,"score":0.2752000093460083},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.27459999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.271699994802475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48145219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1335365","display_name":"Security token","level":2,"score":0.26660001277923584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.26080000400543213},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49154492","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5300","display_name":"Central processing unit","level":2,"score":0.25949999690055847}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/srds69199.2025.00021","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/srds69199.2025.00021","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2025 44th International Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems (SRDS)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":25,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2031533839","https://openalex.org/W2118254039","https://openalex.org/W2251939518","https://openalex.org/W2768174108","https://openalex.org/W2889746123","https://openalex.org/W2899140612","https://openalex.org/W2899435347","https://openalex.org/W2957780493","https://openalex.org/W2998617917","https://openalex.org/W3044375555","https://openalex.org/W3141585064","https://openalex.org/W4205350912","https://openalex.org/W4281806276","https://openalex.org/W4307823778","https://openalex.org/W4385412524","https://openalex.org/W4388979610","https://openalex.org/W4391661643","https://openalex.org/W4392903998","https://openalex.org/W4401943774","https://openalex.org/W4402263660","https://openalex.org/W4405544354","https://openalex.org/W4408750063","https://openalex.org/W4408750076","https://openalex.org/W4415259023","https://openalex.org/W4415798775"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Secure":[0],"inference":[1,62,181],"enables":[2],"privacy-preserving":[3],"machine":[4],"learning":[5],"by":[6,134],"leveraging":[7],"cryptographic":[8,22,73],"protocols":[9,23,74],"that":[10,84,159],"support":[11],"computations":[12],"on":[13,67,182],"sensitive":[14],"user":[15],"data":[16],"without":[17],"exposing":[18],"it.":[19],"However,":[20],"integrating":[21],"with":[24,40,89,126,188],"large":[25],"language":[26],"models":[27],"(LLMs)":[28],"presents":[29],"significant":[30],"challenges,":[31],"as":[32,128],"the":[33,68,72,97,107,119,122,136,140,150,189],"inherent":[34],"complexity":[35,99],"of":[36,70,100,111,121,152,191],"these":[37],"protocols,":[38],"together":[39],"LLMs'":[41],"massive":[42],"parameter":[43],"scale":[44],"and":[45,75,172],"sophisticated":[46],"architectures,":[47],"severely":[48],"limits":[49],"practical":[50],"usability.":[51],"In":[52,104],"this":[53],"work,":[54],"we":[55,117,143],"propose":[56],"ENSI,":[57],"a":[58,90,129,173],"novel":[59],"non-interactive":[60],"secure":[61],"framework":[63],"for":[64],"LLMs,":[65],"based":[66],"principle":[69],"codesigning":[71],"LLM":[76,92],"architecture.":[77],"ENSI":[78,160],"employs":[79],"an":[80,163],"optimized":[81],"encoding":[82],"strategy":[83],"seamlessly":[85],"integrates":[86],"CKKS":[87],"scheme":[88],"lightweight":[91],"variant,":[93],"BitNet,":[94],"significantly":[95],"reducing":[96],"computational":[98,109],"encrypted":[101],"matrix":[102,170],"multiplications.":[103],"response":[105],"to":[106,185,195],"prohibitive":[108],"demands":[110],"softmax":[112,180],"under":[113],"homomorphic":[114],"encryption":[115],"(HE),":[116],"pioneer":[118],"integration":[120],"sigmoid":[123],"attention":[124],"mechanism":[125],"HE":[127],"seamless,":[130],"retraining-free":[131],"alternative.":[132],"Furthermore,":[133],"embedding":[135],"Bootstrapping":[137],"operation":[138],"within":[139],"RMSNorm":[141],"process,":[142],"efficiently":[144],"refresh":[145],"ciphertexts":[146],"while":[147],"markedly":[148],"decreasing":[149],"frequency":[151],"costly":[153],"bootstrapping":[154,192],"invocations.":[155],"Experimental":[156],"evaluations":[157],"demonstrate":[158],"achieves":[161],"approximately":[162],"<tex":[164,174],"xmlns:mml=\"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML\"":[165,175],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\">$8":[166],"\\times$</tex>":[167,177],"acceleration":[168],"in":[169,179],"multiplications":[171],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\">$2.6":[176],"speedup":[178],"CPU":[183],"compared":[184],"state-of-the-art":[186],"method,":[187],"proportion":[190],"is":[193],"reduced":[194],"just":[196],"1":[197],"%.":[198]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-02-01T03:34:12.195049","created_date":"2026-01-30T00:00:00"}
