{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7165885810","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3707409","title":"A Comprehensive Empirical Evaluation of Token-Oriented Object Notation (TOON) for Large Language Model Applications","display_name":"A Comprehensive Empirical Evaluation of Token-Oriented Object Notation (TOON) for Large Language Model Applications","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7165885810","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3707409"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3707409","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3707409","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3707409","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5084618970","display_name":"Khadija Ahaidous","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5162-1988"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121440","display_name":"Moroccan Foundation for Advanced Science, Innovation and Research","ror":"https://ror.org/02gjqpv16","country_code":"MA","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210121440"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210148302","display_name":"MOROCCAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS","ror":"https://ror.org/05dhgjm21","country_code":"MA","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210148302"]}],"countries":["MA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"K. Ahaidous","raw_affiliation_strings":["LPRI Laboratory, Moroccan School of Engineering Science (EMSI), Casablanca, Morocco"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5162-1988","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"LPRI Laboratory, Moroccan School of Engineering Science (EMSI), Casablanca, Morocco","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121440","https://openalex.org/I4210148302"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5001098464","display_name":"L\u2019houssaine Aarif","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4383-7971"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121440","display_name":"Moroccan Foundation for Advanced Science, Innovation and Research","ror":"https://ror.org/02gjqpv16","country_code":"MA","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210121440"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210148302","display_name":"MOROCCAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS","ror":"https://ror.org/05dhgjm21","country_code":"MA","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210148302"]}],"countries":["MA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"L. Aarif","raw_affiliation_strings":["LPRI Laboratory, Moroccan School of Engineering Science (EMSI), Casablanca, Morocco"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4383-7971","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"LPRI Laboratory, Moroccan School of Engineering Science (EMSI), Casablanca, Morocco","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121440","https://openalex.org/I4210148302"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139339609","display_name":"J. Schopplich","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"J. Schopplich","raw_affiliation_strings":["Independent Researcher, Leipzig, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Independent Researcher, Leipzig, Germany","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5015679036","display_name":"Mohamed Tabaa","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3938-3566"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121440","display_name":"Moroccan Foundation for Advanced Science, Innovation and Research","ror":"https://ror.org/02gjqpv16","country_code":"MA","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210121440"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210148302","display_name":"MOROCCAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS","ror":"https://ror.org/05dhgjm21","country_code":"MA","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210148302"]}],"countries":["MA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"M. Tabaa","raw_affiliation_strings":["LPRI Laboratory, Moroccan School of Engineering Science (EMSI), Casablanca, Morocco"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3938-3566","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"LPRI Laboratory, Moroccan School of Engineering Science (EMSI), Casablanca, Morocco","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121440","https://openalex.org/I4210148302"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065452451","display_name":"Hana\u00e2 Hachimi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6884-083X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3121676899","display_name":"Universit\u00e9 Ibn-Tofail","ror":"https://ror.org/02wj89n04","country_code":"MA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3121676899"]}],"countries":["MA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"H. Hachimi","raw_affiliation_strings":["LISA, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6884-083X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"LISA, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3121676899"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.82298621,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":null,"first_page":"100968","last_page":"100986"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.15320000052452087,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.15320000052452087,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.13330000638961792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11450","display_name":"Model-Driven Software Engineering Techniques","score":0.0835999995470047,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/notation","display_name":"Notation","score":0.5597000122070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object","display_name":"Object (grammar)","score":0.5011000037193298},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object-model","display_name":"Object model","score":0.42660000920295715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object-constraint-language","display_name":"Object Constraint Language","score":0.40869998931884766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-modeling","display_name":"Data modeling","score":0.3882000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object-language","display_name":"Object language","score":0.35040000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modeling-language","display_name":"Modeling language","score":0.33880001306533813},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/unified-modeling-language","display_name":"Unified Modeling Language","score":0.33730000257492065}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8675000071525574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.597100019454956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45357846","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2001982","display_name":"Notation","level":2,"score":0.5597000122070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781238097","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175026","display_name":"Object (grammar)","level":2,"score":0.5011000037193298},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.4699000120162964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20894473","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1116105","display_name":"Object model","level":3,"score":0.42660000920295715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4131999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C133264317","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1397689","display_name":"Object Constraint Language","level":5,"score":0.40869998931884766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.3882000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185954173","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4347052","display_name":"Object language","level":3,"score":0.35040000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179603123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1941921","display_name":"Modeling language","level":3,"score":0.33880001306533813},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145644426","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169411","display_name":"Unified Modeling Language","level":3,"score":0.33730000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73752529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79872","display_name":"Object-oriented programming","level":2,"score":0.33320000767707825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.31769999861717224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C183322885","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17007702","display_name":"Context model","level":3,"score":0.31690001487731934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.28940001130104065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.2775999903678894},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202446494","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q664166","display_name":"Class diagram","level":4,"score":0.26339998841285706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C133199616","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25386885","display_name":"Empirical modelling","level":2,"score":0.2558000087738037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780966626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11292308","display_name":"Object-oriented modeling","level":3,"score":0.2551000118255615}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3707409","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3707409","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:d5d215b74a25413ba535620335190436","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/d5d215b74a25413ba535620335190436","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 14, Pp 100968-100986 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3707409","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3707409","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.4609319865703583,"display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F2732280818","display_name":"\u00c9cole Marocaine des Sciences de l'Ing\u00e9nieur","ror":"https://ror.org/01d1pbg09"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"language":[1,44,110],"models":[2,111,257],"operate":[3],"on":[4,180,195,232,251,272],"token-based":[5],"pricing":[6],"models,":[7],"where":[8],"input":[9],"efficiency":[10,123,128,201],"directly":[11],"impacts":[12],"operational":[13,302],"costs.":[14],"Traditional":[15],"serialization":[16,35,62,100,290],"formats":[17,101],"such":[18],"as":[19],"JSON":[20,184],"introduce":[21],"substantial":[22],"token":[23,67,122,176],"overhead":[24],"through":[25,69],"redundant":[26],"delimiters":[27],"and":[28,75,108,124,238,253,256,304,314],"repeated":[29],"field":[30],"names,":[31],"yet":[32],"structured":[33],"data":[34,289,311],"for":[36,266,287],"LLM":[37,292],"consumption":[38,68,177],"remains":[39],"underexplored":[40],"compared":[41,182],"to":[42,65,89,133,183,222,259],"natural":[43],"prompt":[45],"compression.":[46],"This":[47],"paper":[48],"presents":[49],"a":[50,59,282],"comprehensive":[51],"empirical":[52,285],"evaluation":[53],"of":[54,216],"Token-Oriented":[55],"Object":[56],"Notation":[57],"(TOON),":[58],"lossless,":[60],"human-readable":[61],"format":[63,297],"designed":[64],"minimize":[66],"indentation-based":[70],"nesting,":[71],"tabular":[72,88,198],"array":[73],"encoding,":[74],"explicit":[76,263],"structural":[77,239],"metadata.":[78],"We":[79],"conducted":[80],"5,016":[81],"evaluations":[82],"across":[83,149,205],"11":[84],"datasets":[85,135],"spanning":[86],"uniform":[87,197],"deeply":[90],"nested":[91,252],"structures,":[92,255],"209":[93],"questions":[94],"covering":[95],"five":[96],"task":[97],"types,":[98],"6":[99],"(TOON,":[102],"JSON,":[103],"JSON-compact,":[104],"YAML,":[105],"XML,":[106],"CSV),":[107],"4":[109],"(Claude":[112],"Haiku":[113],"4.5,":[114],"Gemini":[115],"2.5":[116],"Flash,":[117],"GPT-5-nano,":[118],"Grok-4-fast-non-reasoning),":[119],"measuring":[120],"both":[121],"comprehension":[125],"accuracy.":[126],"Token":[127],"analysis":[129],"was":[130],"further":[131],"extended":[132],"14":[134],"including":[136],"3":[137],"real-world":[138],"API":[139],"sources":[140],"(HuggingFace":[141],"Datasets":[142],"API,":[143,156],"NPM":[144],"registry,":[145],"REST":[146],"Countries),":[147],"evaluated":[148],"7":[150,207],"tokenizer":[151],"families":[152],"(GPT":[153],"o200k,":[154],"Claude":[155],"LLaMA":[157],"3.1,":[158],"Mistral":[159],"7B,":[160],"Qwen":[161],"2.5,":[162],"Gemma":[163],"2,":[164],"Phi-3)":[165],"with":[166,191,228],"bootstrap":[167],"statistical":[168],"validation.":[169],"Our":[170],"results":[171,280],"show":[172],"that":[173,295],"TOON":[174,245],"reduces":[175],"by":[178],"39.6%":[179],"average":[181],"(2,744":[185],"vs":[186,236,242],"4,545":[187],"tokens":[188],"per":[189],"evaluation),":[190],"reductions":[192],"reaching":[193],"59-61%":[194],"highly":[196],"data.":[199],"These":[200,279],"gains":[202,231],"are":[203,212],"consistent":[204],"all":[206],"tokenizers":[208],"tested,":[209],"confirming":[210],"they":[211],"not":[213],"an":[214],"artifact":[215],"GPT":[217],"tokenization.":[218],"Comprehension":[219],"accuracy":[220,271],"improves":[221],"73.9%":[223],"versus":[224],"JSON’s":[225],"69.7%":[226],"overall,":[227],"particularly":[229],"strong":[230],"aggregation":[233],"tasks":[234],"(54.4%":[235],"48.8%)":[237],"validation":[240],"(70%":[241],"50%).":[243],"However,":[244],"is":[246],"less":[247],"efficient":[248],"than":[249],"JSON-compact":[250],"heterogeneous":[254],"failed":[258],"consistently":[260],"exploit":[261],"TOON’s":[262],"length":[264],"metadata":[265,277],"truncation":[267,273],"detection,":[268],"achieving":[269],"0%":[270],"cases":[274],"despite":[275],"perfect":[276],"availability.":[278],"provide":[281],"statistically":[283],"validated":[284],"basis":[286],"format-optimized":[288],"in":[291],"applications,":[293],"demonstrating":[294],"careful":[296],"design":[298],"can":[299],"simultaneously":[300],"reduce":[301],"costs":[303],"improve":[305],"model":[306],"understanding,":[307],"while":[308],"clarifying":[309],"the":[310],"structure":[312],"conditions":[313],"limitations":[315],"under":[316],"which":[317],"these":[318],"benefits":[319],"apply.":[320]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-10T05:49:55.623906","created_date":"2026-06-26T00:00:00"}