{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2973002139","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","title":"Design of a Time-of-Flight Sensor With Standard Pinned-Photodiode Devices Toward 100-MHz Modulation Frequency","display_name":"Design of a Time-of-Flight Sensor With Standard Pinned-Photodiode Devices Toward 100-MHz Modulation Frequency","publication_year":2019,"publication_date":"2019-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2973002139","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","mag":"2973002139"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2019.2940259","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08832150.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08832150.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100426795","display_name":"Seunghyun Lee","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7855-5036","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7855-5036"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I48566637","display_name":"Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/017cjz748","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Seunghyun Lee","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002052875","display_name":"Dahwan Park","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8672-0890","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8672-0890"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I48566637","display_name":"Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/017cjz748","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dahwan Park","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101990760","display_name":"Sanguk Lee","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8932-6626","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8932-6626"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I48566637","display_name":"Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/017cjz748","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sanguk Lee","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5091341639","display_name":"Jaehyuk Choi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4700-1900","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4700-1900"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I848706","display_name":"Sungkyunkwan University","ror":"https://ror.org/04q78tk20","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I848706"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jaehyuk Choi","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Information and Communication Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Information and Communication Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I848706"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100321810","display_name":"Seong\u2010Jin Kim","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9353-5148","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9353-5148"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I48566637","display_name":"Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/017cjz748","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Seong-Jin Kim","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9353-5148","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1750,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1750},"apc_paid":{"value":1750,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1750},"fwci":2.6619,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":27,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92790937,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":null,"first_page":"130451","last_page":"130459"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12153","display_name":"Advanced Optical Sensing Technologies","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3105","display_name":"Instrumentation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12153","display_name":"Advanced Optical Sensing Technologies","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3105","display_name":"Instrumentation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11992","display_name":"CCD and CMOS Imaging Sensors","score":0.0007999999797903001,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11637","display_name":"Advanced Semiconductor Detectors and Materials","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/time-of-flight-sensors","display_name":"time-of-flight sensors","score":0.953000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pinned-photodiode","display_name":"pinned photodiode","score":0.9290000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lateral-electric-field","display_name":"lateral electric field","score":0.9919999837875366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/epitaxial-layer-thickness","display_name":"epitaxial layer thickness","score":0.9800000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modulation-frequency","display_name":"modulation frequency","score":0.5979999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/depth-resolution","display_name":"depth resolution","score":0.9369999766349792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/linearity-error","display_name":"linearity error","score":0.7789999842643738}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C751236","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175943","display_name":"Photodiode","level":2,"score":0.7785482406616211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160633673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q355198","display_name":"Pixel","level":2,"score":0.6243181228637695},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195251586","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1185939","display_name":"Demodulation","level":3,"score":0.6147127151489258},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77170095","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1753188","display_name":"Linearity","level":2,"score":0.6003307104110718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123079801","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q750240","display_name":"Modulation (music)","level":2,"score":0.5811561346054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76935873","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209121","display_name":"Image sensor","level":2,"score":0.5776610374450684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175231954","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1942321","display_name":"Optical transfer function","level":2,"score":0.5674937963485718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98960154","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3983322","display_name":"Time of flight","level":2,"score":0.4611855149269104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152213855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189880","display_name":"Charge-coupled device","level":2,"score":0.4562673270702362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.4371452331542969},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.42681053280830383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165801399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25428","display_name":"Voltage","level":2,"score":0.4258248805999756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178693496","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q911691","display_name":"Clock rate","level":3,"score":0.41039764881134033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.401075541973114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49040817","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193091","display_name":"Optoelectronics","level":1,"score":0.378007173538208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3342844247817993},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24326235","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126095","display_name":"Electronic engineering","level":1,"score":0.29243820905685425},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.26090461015701294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.1416291892528534},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.14161553978919983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24890656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82811","display_name":"Acoustics","level":1,"score":0.13076886534690857},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127162648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16858953","display_name":"Channel (broadcasting)","level":2,"score":0.08739659190177917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46362747","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173431","display_name":"CMOS","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2019.2940259","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08832150.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:02604364b22e433ca6601901d0559673","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/02604364b22e433ca6601901d0559673","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 7, Pp 130451-130459 (2019)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:scholarworks.unist.ac.kr:201301/27452","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://scholarworks.unist.ac.kr/handle/201301/27452","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401118","display_name":"Scholarworks@UNIST (Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I48566637","host_organization_name":"Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I48566637"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"ARTICLE"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2019.2940259","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2940259","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08832150.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"score":0.699999988079071,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7","display_name":"Affordable and clean energy"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2104028024","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2017R1C1B2010564","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322120","funder_display_name":"National Research Foundation of Korea"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6701308394","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2017R1C1B2010564","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322030","funder_display_name":"Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320671","display_name":"National Research Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/05s0g1g46"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321681","display_name":"Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy","ror":"https://ror.org/008nkqk13"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322030","display_name":"Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning","ror":"https://ror.org/032e49973"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322120","display_name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","ror":"https://ror.org/013aysd81"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2973002139.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2973002139.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":18,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W157713362","https://openalex.org/W1492941489","https://openalex.org/W1971138589","https://openalex.org/W1975328031","https://openalex.org/W1984001432","https://openalex.org/W2038643807","https://openalex.org/W2058662614","https://openalex.org/W2071740713","https://openalex.org/W2076642115","https://openalex.org/W2108529245","https://openalex.org/W2132347110","https://openalex.org/W2144372297","https://openalex.org/W2145181234","https://openalex.org/W2159059373","https://openalex.org/W2558344443","https://openalex.org/W2884239713","https://openalex.org/W2906868222","https://openalex.org/W6939726687"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2367884125","https://openalex.org/W2093594093","https://openalex.org/W3215112777","https://openalex.org/W2040307044","https://openalex.org/W2777508220","https://openalex.org/W2026170649","https://openalex.org/W2353649950","https://openalex.org/W2029988057","https://openalex.org/W2388893202","https://openalex.org/W2127997239"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0,150,208],"present":[1],"an":[2],"indirect":[3,131],"Time-of-Flight":[4],"(ToF)":[5],"sensor":[6],"based":[7],"on":[8],"standard":[9,34],"pinned-photodiode":[10],"(PPD)":[11],"devices":[12,41,220],"and":[13,95,113,137,147,191,200],"design":[14,97],"guides":[15],"to":[16,68,81,161,223],"pave":[17],"the":[18,21,93,106,110,114,118,153,167,171,213,218,225],"way":[19],"for":[20,42,87,99],"development":[22],"of":[23,50,59,117,156,170,186,195,212],"a":[24,83,142,183,192,205],"ToF":[25,132,214],"pixel":[26,158,176,215],"operating":[27,102,177,227],"at":[28,159,178],"100":[29,230],"MHz":[30,163,180,231],"modulation":[31,232],"frequency.":[32,233],"The":[33,174],"PPDs":[35],"are":[36,121],"established":[37],"well":[38],"as":[39,105],"predominant":[40],"2-D":[43],"color":[44],"imagers":[45],"in":[46,127],"these":[47],"days":[48],"because":[49],"their":[51],"low":[52],"noise":[53],"characteristic,":[54],"but":[55],"slow":[56],"transfer":[57,90,119],"speed":[58,91],"photo-generated":[60],"electrons":[61],"still":[62],"prevents":[63],"them":[64],"from":[65],"being":[66],"employed":[67],"3-D":[69],"depth":[70,184],"imagers.":[71],"Optimized":[72],"PPD":[73,219],"structure":[74],"with":[75,123,134,204,217],"no":[76],"process":[77,146],"modifications":[78],"is":[79,221],"introduced":[80],"create":[82],"lateral":[84],"electric":[85],"field":[86],"enhancing":[88],"charge":[89],"inside":[92],"PPD,":[94],"essential":[96],"parameters":[98,138],"achieving":[100],"high":[101],"frequency":[103,181],"such":[104],"epitaxial":[107],"layer":[108],"thickness,":[109],"pinning":[111],"voltage,":[112],"threshold":[115],"voltage":[116],"gates":[120],"discussed":[122],"TCAD":[124],"simulation":[125],"results":[126],"this":[128],"paper.":[129],"Prototype":[130],"sensors":[133],"various":[135],"structures":[136],"were":[139],"fabricated":[140],"using":[141],"0.11-$\\mu":[143],"\\text{m}$standard":[144],"CIS":[145],"characterized":[148],"fully.":[149],"successfully":[151],"evaluated":[152],"demodulation":[154],"contrast":[155],"each":[157],"10":[160],"75":[162],"frequencies,":[164],"figuring":[165],"out":[166],"suitable":[168],"conditions":[169],"PPD-based":[172],"pixel.":[173],"best":[175],"50":[179],"demonstrated":[182],"resolution":[185],"less":[187],"than":[188],"13":[189],"mm":[190],"linearity":[193],"error":[194],"about":[196],"3.7%":[197],"between":[198],"1":[199],"3":[201],"m":[202],"distance":[203],"zero-order":[206],"calibration.":[207],"believe":[209],"further":[210],"optimization":[211],"incorporated":[216],"possible":[222],"improve":[224],"performance,":[226],"it":[228],"towards":[229]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2026-09-08T07:41:39.490200","created_date":"2019-09-19T00:00:00"}