{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7147450109","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","title":"Immersive VR for the Assessment of Spatial Skills in Adolescents: Performance, Gender Effects, and Links to Computational Thinking","display_name":"Immersive VR for the Assessment of Spatial Skills in Adolescents: Performance, Gender Effects, and Links to Computational Thinking","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-31","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7147450109","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41915499"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S84775595","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","issn_l":"1077-2626","issn":["1077-2626","1941-0506","2160-9306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032102425","display_name":"Lorenzo Gerini","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-8988-6909"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210132307","display_name":"Bioengineering Technology and Systems (Italy)","ror":"https://ror.org/046qxc353","country_code":"IT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lorenzo Gerini","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-8988-6909","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Matteo Martini","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3929-5055"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210132307","display_name":"Bioengineering Technology and Systems (Italy)","ror":"https://ror.org/046qxc353","country_code":"IT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Matteo Martini","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3929-5055","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071901297","display_name":"Giorgio Delzanno","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7030-1050"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210132307","display_name":"Bioengineering Technology and Systems (Italy)","ror":"https://ror.org/046qxc353","country_code":"IT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Giorgio Delzanno","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7030-1050","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5020065998","display_name":"Giovanna Guerrini","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9125-9867"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210132307","display_name":"Bioengineering Technology and Systems (Italy)","ror":"https://ror.org/046qxc353","country_code":"IT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Giovanna Guerrini","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9125-9867","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085589239","display_name":"Fabio Solari","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8111-0409"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210132307","display_name":"Bioengineering Technology and Systems (Italy)","ror":"https://ror.org/046qxc353","country_code":"IT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fabio Solari","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8111-0409","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008474318","display_name":"Manuela Chessa","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3098-5894"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210132307","display_name":"Bioengineering Technology and Systems (Italy)","ror":"https://ror.org/046qxc353","country_code":"IT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Manuela Chessa","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3098-5894","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems engineering, University of Genoa, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132307"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.43820225,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"32","issue":"5","first_page":"4471","last_page":"4481"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11904","display_name":"Spatial Cognition and Navigation","score":0.9954000115394592,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11904","display_name":"Spatial Cognition and Navigation","score":0.9954000115394592,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12343","display_name":"Geography Education and Pedagogy","score":0.0012000000569969416,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3305","display_name":"Geography, Planning and Development"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10648","display_name":"Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts","score":0.0006000000284984708,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/virtual-reality","display_name":"Virtual reality","score":0.8410000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spatial-ability","display_name":"Spatial ability","score":0.8066999912261963},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mental-rotation","display_name":"Mental rotation","score":0.708299994468689},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embodied-cognition","display_name":"Embodied cognition","score":0.5551000237464905},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/immersion","display_name":"Immersion (mathematics)","score":0.43970000743865967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/test","display_name":"Test (biology)","score":0.4034999907016754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/visualization","display_name":"Visualization","score":0.3953000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spatial-intelligence","display_name":"Spatial intelligence","score":0.3862999975681305}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C194969405","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170519","display_name":"Virtual reality","level":2,"score":0.8410000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778662690","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3125339","display_name":"Spatial ability","level":3,"score":0.8066999912261963},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C68867621","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q257360","display_name":"Mental rotation","level":3,"score":0.708299994468689},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6152999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100609095","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1335050","display_name":"Embodied cognition","level":2,"score":0.5551000237464905},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.4754999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199068039","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q574523","display_name":"Immersion (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.43970000743865967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.4034999907016754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.4009999930858612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36464697","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q451553","display_name":"Visualization","level":2,"score":0.3953000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155911833","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3817354","display_name":"Spatial intelligence","level":2,"score":0.3862999975681305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780368719","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5157342","display_name":"Computational thinking","level":2,"score":0.3804999887943268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777371692","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2178611","display_name":"Spatial cognition","level":3,"score":0.34779998660087585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126057942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35158","display_name":"Stereoscopy","level":2,"score":0.32420000433921814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153715457","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254183","display_name":"Augmented reality","level":2,"score":0.32010000944137573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.3165000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776872670","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2288542","display_name":"Simulator sickness","level":3,"score":0.310699999332428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4051589","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860959","display_name":"Mental image","level":3,"score":0.304500013589859},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3041999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.30379998683929443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43729271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560550","display_name":"Spatial memory","level":4,"score":0.29260000586509705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C25344961","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192726","display_name":"Virtual machine","level":2,"score":0.2888000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.2865000069141388},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75630572","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q538904","display_name":"Applied psychology","level":1,"score":0.2703000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.2662000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66024118","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1122506","display_name":"Computational model","level":2,"score":0.25589999556541443}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S84775595","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","issn_l":"1077-2626","issn":["1077-2626","1941-0506","2160-9306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:41915499","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41915499","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:unige.iris.cineca.it:11567/1302857","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11567/1302857","pdf_url":"https://unige.iris.cineca.it/bitstream/11567/1302857/1/Immersive_VR_for_the_Assessment_of_Spatial_Skills_in_Adolescents_Performance_Gender_Effects_and_Links_to_Computational_Thinking.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196291","display_name":"CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I83816512","host_organization_name":"University of Genoa","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I83816512"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2026.3679088","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S84775595","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","issn_l":"1077-2626","issn":["1077-2626","1941-0506","2160-9306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8242467641830444,"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Spatial":[0,165],"skills,":[1],"in":[2,85,99,114,150,162,192],"particular":[3],"mental":[4],"rotation,":[5],"are":[6,141],"increasingly":[7],"linked":[8],"to":[9,13,44,66,180,200],"STEM":[10,222],"achievements":[11],"and":[12,24,31,78,87,134,174,216,224],"computational":[14,181],"thinking":[15],"(CT)":[16],"abilities.":[17],"Traditional":[18],"2D":[19,89,133,155,173,202],"spatial":[20,83,190],"assessments":[21,90],"face":[22],"validity":[23],"equity":[25],"issues":[26,69],"from":[27],"visual":[28],"ambiguity,":[29],"occlusion,":[30],"missing":[32],"depth":[33],"cues,":[34],"requiring":[35],"cognitively":[36],"demanding":[37],"2D-to-3D":[38],"interpretation.":[39],"These":[40,183],"artifacts":[41],"might":[42],"contribute":[43],"gender":[45,139],"disparities,":[46],"giving":[47],"males":[48,159],"an":[49],"advantage":[50],"that":[51,138,186],"may":[52],"reflect":[53],"test":[54],"bias":[55],"rather":[56],"than":[57],"true":[58],"ability":[59],"differences.":[60],"Immersive":[61],"Virtual":[62,93],"Reality":[63,94],"(VR)":[64],"seems":[65],"mitigate":[67],"these":[68],"by":[70],"providing":[71],"stereoscopic":[72],"depth,":[73],"multi-perspective":[74],"viewing,":[75],"realistic":[76],"lighting,":[77],"embodied":[79],"interaction.":[80],"We":[81,136],"compared":[82],"performance":[84,146,196],"VR":[86,108,143,175,193,209],"traditional":[88,201],"using":[91],"the":[92,145,154,187,205,211],"Mental":[95,115],"Rotation":[96,116],"Assessment":[97],"(VRMRA)":[98],"a":[100,178],"within-subjects":[101],"study":[102],"of":[103,147,189,207,213],"48":[104],"adolescents":[105],"(ages":[106],"12-16).":[107],"improved":[109,144,214],"performance,":[110],"yielding":[111],"higher":[112],"accuracy":[113,127],"Test":[117],"(MRT)-style":[118],"tasks":[119],"(+1.3":[120],"items,":[121],"p":[122],"<":[123],".001),":[124],"while":[125],"PSVT:R":[126],"did":[128],"not":[129],"differ":[130],"significantly":[131],"between":[132],"VR.":[135],"observed":[137],"effects":[140],"task-specific:":[142],"females":[148],"most":[149],"MRT-style":[151],"tasks,":[152],"reversing":[153],"male":[156],"advantage,":[157],"whereas":[158],"gained":[160],"more":[161],"PSVT:R-style":[163],"tasks.":[164],"scores":[166],"correlated":[167],"positively":[168],"with":[169,198],"CT":[170],"across":[171],"both":[172],"assessments,":[176],"indicating":[177],"link":[179],"problem-solving.":[182],"results":[184],"suggest":[185],"assessment":[188],"skills":[191],"produces":[194],"distinct":[195],"patterns":[197],"respect":[199],"assessment,":[203],"highlighting":[204],"importance":[206],"immersive":[208],"for":[210,220],"development":[212],"tools":[215],"its":[217],"potential":[218],"implications":[219],"inclusive":[221],"education":[223],"talent":[225],"identification.":[226]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2026-04-02T00:00:00"}
