{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3137807525","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067767","title":"Evidence of Racial Bias Using Immersive Virtual Reality: Analysis of Head and Hand Motions During Shooting Decisions","display_name":"Evidence of Racial Bias Using Immersive Virtual Reality: Analysis of Head and Hand Motions During Shooting Decisions","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-03-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3137807525","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067767","mag":"3137807525","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33750702"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067767","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067767","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S84775595","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","issn_l":"1077-2626","issn":["1077-2626","1941-0506","2160-9306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090060844","display_name":"Tabitha C. Peck","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3667-7713"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141720752","display_name":"Davidson College","ror":"https://ror.org/02f7k4z58","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141720752"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Tabitha C. Peck","raw_affiliation_strings":["Davidson College, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Davidson College, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141720752"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5091710158","display_name":"Jessica J. Good","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3009-1903"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141720752","display_name":"Davidson College","ror":"https://ror.org/02f7k4z58","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141720752"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jessica J. Good","raw_affiliation_strings":["Davidson College, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Davidson College, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141720752"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5017985140","display_name":"Katharina R. Seitz","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141720752","display_name":"Davidson College","ror":"https://ror.org/02f7k4z58","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141720752"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Katharina Seitz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Davidson College, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Davidson College, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141720752"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5090060844"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141720752"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":4.6404,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":29,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94680113,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"27","issue":"5","first_page":"2502","last_page":"2512"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12521","display_name":"Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion","score":0.9977999925613403,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12521","display_name":"Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion","score":0.9977999925613403,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12265","display_name":"Gun Ownership and Violence Research","score":0.9904000163078308,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3306","display_name":"Health"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10314","display_name":"Social and Intergroup Psychology","score":0.9850000143051147,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7483540773391724},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/illusion","display_name":"Illusion","score":0.7039369940757751},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/virtual-reality","display_name":"Virtual reality","score":0.6215431690216064},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/racial-bias","display_name":"Racial bias","score":0.5941141843795776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/racism","display_name":"Racism","score":0.4074123799800873},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.36220043897628784},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-psychology","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","score":0.20072364807128906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.1800059974193573}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7483540773391724},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184047640","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182593","display_name":"Illusion","level":2,"score":0.7039369940757751},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C194969405","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170519","display_name":"Virtual reality","level":2,"score":0.6215431690216064},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992700788","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8461","display_name":"Racial bias","level":3,"score":0.5941141843795776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139838865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8461","display_name":"Racism","level":2,"score":0.4074123799800873},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.36220043897628784},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.20072364807128906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.1800059974193573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000076142","descriptor_name":"Virtual Reality","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000076142","descriptor_name":"Virtual Reality","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000076142","descriptor_name":"Virtual Reality","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000293","descriptor_name":"Adolescent","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000293","descriptor_name":"Adolescent","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000293","descriptor_name":"Adolescent","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000328","descriptor_name":"Adult","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000328","descriptor_name":"Adult","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000328","descriptor_name":"Adult","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000368","descriptor_name":"Aged","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000368","descriptor_name":"Aged","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000368","descriptor_name":"Aged","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003196","descriptor_name":"Computer Graphics","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003196","descriptor_name":"Computer Graphics","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003196","descriptor_name":"Computer Graphics","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003657","descriptor_name":"Decision Making","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003657","descriptor_name":"Decision Making","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003657","descriptor_name":"Decision Making","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D005260","descriptor_name":"Female","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D005260","descriptor_name":"Female","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D005260","descriptor_name":"Female","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D005389","descriptor_name":"Firearms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D005389","descriptor_name":"Firearms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D005389","descriptor_name":"Firearms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D006225","descriptor_name":"Hand","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006225","descriptor_name":"Hand","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006225","descriptor_name":"Hand","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008297","descriptor_name":"Male","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008297","descriptor_name":"Male","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008297","descriptor_name":"Male","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008875","descriptor_name":"Middle Aged","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008875","descriptor_name":"Middle Aged","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008875","descriptor_name":"Middle Aged","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D013239","descriptor_name":"Stereotyped Behavior","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D013239","descriptor_name":"Stereotyped Behavior","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D013239","descriptor_name":"Stereotyped Behavior","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D019416","descriptor_name":"Head Movements","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D019416","descriptor_name":"Head Movements","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D019416","descriptor_name":"Head Movements","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D055815","descriptor_name":"Young Adult","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D055815","descriptor_name":"Young Adult","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D055815","descriptor_name":"Young Adult","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D063505","descriptor_name":"Racism","qualifier_ui":"Q000523","qualifier_name":"psychology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D063505","descriptor_name":"Racism","qualifier_ui":"Q000523","qualifier_name":"psychology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D063505","descriptor_name":"Racism","qualifier_ui":"Q000523","qualifier_name":"psychology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D063505","descriptor_name":"Racism","qualifier_ui":"Q000706","qualifier_name":"statistics & numerical data","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D063505","descriptor_name":"Racism","qualifier_ui":"Q000706","qualifier_name":"statistics & numerical data","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D063505","descriptor_name":"Racism","qualifier_ui":"Q000706","qualifier_name":"statistics & numerical data","is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067767","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067767","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S84775595","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","issn_l":"1077-2626","issn":["1077-2626","1941-0506","2160-9306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:33750702","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33750702","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics","raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","score":0.6700000166893005}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320309318","display_name":"Desert Research Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/02vg22c33"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":61,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W177370797","https://openalex.org/W287527026","https://openalex.org/W1506823632","https://openalex.org/W1721613254","https://openalex.org/W1950864686","https://openalex.org/W1965808358","https://openalex.org/W1973787747","https://openalex.org/W1978215657","https://openalex.org/W1980914577","https://openalex.org/W2005060217","https://openalex.org/W2023898780","https://openalex.org/W2029901712","https://openalex.org/W2036335035","https://openalex.org/W2058845648","https://openalex.org/W2072227633","https://openalex.org/W2076879021","https://openalex.org/W2082707578","https://openalex.org/W2090735768","https://openalex.org/W2090933300","https://openalex.org/W2095424128","https://openalex.org/W2095934872","https://openalex.org/W2099789522","https://openalex.org/W2103408628","https://openalex.org/W2120759851","https://openalex.org/W2127033666","https://openalex.org/W2136162107","https://openalex.org/W2140313855","https://openalex.org/W2140534852","https://openalex.org/W2145839404","https://openalex.org/W2151441810","https://openalex.org/W2160144355","https://openalex.org/W2162361581","https://openalex.org/W2164782840","https://openalex.org/W2249279987","https://openalex.org/W2277109345","https://openalex.org/W2343019248","https://openalex.org/W2468518589","https://openalex.org/W2559271218","https://openalex.org/W2562199918","https://openalex.org/W2587586470","https://openalex.org/W2618394217","https://openalex.org/W2737571291","https://openalex.org/W2762507350","https://openalex.org/W2773301370","https://openalex.org/W2775776887","https://openalex.org/W2779953302","https://openalex.org/W2790391500","https://openalex.org/W2800876660","https://openalex.org/W2804788713","https://openalex.org/W2806760695","https://openalex.org/W3005627210","https://openalex.org/W3006487529","https://openalex.org/W3032379166","https://openalex.org/W3118914251","https://openalex.org/W3125246655","https://openalex.org/W4231165370","https://openalex.org/W4238036858","https://openalex.org/W4247118947","https://openalex.org/W6607212688","https://openalex.org/W6610400531","https://openalex.org/W6778466443"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2059650074","https://openalex.org/W22639311","https://openalex.org/W4285504728","https://openalex.org/W1983325912","https://openalex.org/W2157051509","https://openalex.org/W2188455416","https://openalex.org/W4300198819","https://openalex.org/W2605109889","https://openalex.org/W4320467347","https://openalex.org/W2800520335"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Shooter":[0],"bias":[1,31,64,75,96],"is":[2],"the":[3,27,43,93],"tendency":[4],"to":[5,14,25,85,91,101,118,136,168],"more":[6,36,112,127],"quickly":[7],"shoot":[8],"at":[9],"unarmed":[10,15],"Black":[11],"suspects":[12],"compared":[13,84],"White":[16],"suspects.":[17],"The":[18],"primary":[19],"goal":[20],"of":[21,29,42,147,164],"this":[22,50,165],"research":[23],"was":[24,76,98,134],"investigate":[26],"efficacy":[28],"shooter":[30,61,95],"simulation":[32,88],"studies":[33],"in":[34,65,79,110],"a":[35,56,120,124],"realistic":[37,113],"immersive":[38,67,81],"virtual":[39,68,82],"scenario":[40],"instead":[41],"traditional":[44],"methodologies":[45],"using":[46],"desktop":[47],"computers.":[48],"In":[49],"paper":[51],"we":[52],"present":[53],"results":[54,71],"from":[55],"user":[57],"study":[58],"(N=99)":[59],"investigating":[60],"and":[62,122,130,142,162,171],"racial":[63,74,139,169],"an":[66,80],"environment.":[69],"Our":[70],"highlight":[72],"how":[73,148],"observed":[77],"differently":[78],"environment":[83],"previous":[86],"desktop-based":[87],"studies.":[89],"Latency":[90],"shoot,":[92],"standard":[94],"measure,":[97],"not":[99],"found":[100],"be":[102,153],"significantly":[103],"different":[104],"between":[105],"race":[106],"or":[107],"socioeconomic":[108],"status":[109],"our":[111],"scenarios":[114],"where":[115],"participants":[116],"chose":[117],"raise":[119],"weapon":[121],"pull":[123],"trigger.":[125],"However,":[126],"nuanced":[128,150],"head":[129],"hand":[131],"motion":[132],"analysis":[133],"able":[135],"predict":[137],"participants'":[138],"shooting":[140],"accuracy":[141],"implicit":[143],"racism":[144],"scores.":[145],"Discussion":[146],"these":[149],"measures":[151],"can":[152],"used":[154],"for":[155,159],"detecting":[156],"behavior":[157],"changes":[158],"body-swap":[160],"illusions,":[161],"implications":[163],"work":[166],"related":[167],"justice":[170],"police":[172],"brutality":[173],"are":[174],"discussed.":[175]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
