{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4413156323","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tsg.2025.3598082","title":"Multi-Agent Hierarchical Deep Reinforcement Learning for HVAC Control With Flexible DERs","display_name":"Multi-Agent Hierarchical Deep Reinforcement Learning for HVAC Control With Flexible DERs","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-08-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4413156323","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tsg.2025.3598082"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tsg.2025.3598082","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tsg.2025.3598082","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S59604973","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid","issn_l":"1949-3053","issn":["1949-3053","1949-3061"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062644126","display_name":"Yansong Pei","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4647-7491"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I140172145","display_name":"University of Connecticut","ror":"https://ror.org/02der9h97","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I140172145"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yansong Pei","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4647-7491","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I140172145"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058077843","display_name":"Yiyun Yao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3847-815X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1297288678","display_name":"National Laboratory of the Rockies","ror":"https://ror.org/036266993","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678","https://openalex.org/I1330989302","https://openalex.org/I2800842121"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yiyun Yao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Power Systems Engineering Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3847-815X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Power Systems Engineering Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5042402520","display_name":"Junbo Zhao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8498-9666"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I140172145","display_name":"University of Connecticut","ror":"https://ror.org/02der9h97","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I140172145"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Junbo Zhao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8498-9666","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I140172145"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5035674512","display_name":"Jun Hao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1297288678","display_name":"National Laboratory of the Rockies","ror":"https://ror.org/036266993","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678","https://openalex.org/I1330989302","https://openalex.org/I2800842121"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jun Hao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Power Systems Engineering Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Power Systems Engineering Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032738351","display_name":"Fei Ding","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2500-1275"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1297288678","display_name":"National Laboratory of the Rockies","ror":"https://ror.org/036266993","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678","https://openalex.org/I1330989302","https://openalex.org/I2800842121"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fei Ding","raw_affiliation_strings":["Power Systems Engineering Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2500-1275","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Power Systems Engineering Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101722194","display_name":"Jiyu Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3108-8773"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1297288678","display_name":"National Laboratory of the Rockies","ror":"https://ror.org/036266993","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678","https://openalex.org/I1330989302","https://openalex.org/I2800842121"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I140172145","display_name":"University of Connecticut","ror":"https://ror.org/02der9h97","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I140172145"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiyu Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA","National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3108-8773","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I140172145"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1297288678"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5062644126"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I140172145"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.0385,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.91003211,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"6","first_page":"5589","last_page":"5601"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10121","display_name":"Building Energy and Comfort Optimization","score":0.9246000051498413,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2215","display_name":"Building and Construction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10121","display_name":"Building Energy and Comfort Optimization","score":0.9246000051498413,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2215","display_name":"Building and Construction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.7906574010848999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5714312195777893},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hvac","display_name":"HVAC","score":0.5518876910209656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.4826246201992035},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement","display_name":"Reinforcement","score":0.462402880191803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.4208194613456726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hierarchical-control-system","display_name":"Hierarchical control system","score":0.4133874177932739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control-engineering","display_name":"Control engineering","score":0.4082965850830078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.36018240451812744},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/air-conditioning","display_name":"Air conditioning","score":0.09614995121955872}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.7906574010848999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5714312195777893},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C122346748","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1798773","display_name":"HVAC","level":3,"score":0.5518876910209656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.4826246201992035},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67203356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321905","display_name":"Reinforcement","level":2,"score":0.462402880191803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4208194613456726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124527596","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17029359","display_name":"Hierarchical control system","level":3,"score":0.4133874177932739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C133731056","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4917288","display_name":"Control engineering","level":1,"score":0.4082965850830078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.36018240451812744},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C103742991","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173725","display_name":"Air conditioning","level":2,"score":0.09614995121955872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66938386","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q633538","display_name":"Structural engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78519656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101333","display_name":"Mechanical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tsg.2025.3598082","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tsg.2025.3598082","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S59604973","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid","issn_l":"1949-3053","issn":["1949-3053","1949-3061"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3929847507","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EW22-7467","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320333589","funder_display_name":"Environmental Security Technology Certification Program"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8846609399","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"DE-AC36-08GO28308","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338290","funder_display_name":"National Renewable Energy Laboratory"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320333589","display_name":"Environmental Security Technology Certification Program","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338290","display_name":"National Renewable Energy Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/036266993"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":44,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1976883400","https://openalex.org/W1977405994","https://openalex.org/W1980364886","https://openalex.org/W1983563831","https://openalex.org/W1987505752","https://openalex.org/W1992679131","https://openalex.org/W2024998154","https://openalex.org/W2044284386","https://openalex.org/W2044742906","https://openalex.org/W2074513827","https://openalex.org/W2103868202","https://openalex.org/W2123739403","https://openalex.org/W2145153623","https://openalex.org/W2163121678","https://openalex.org/W2534521428","https://openalex.org/W2620991442","https://openalex.org/W2744228549","https://openalex.org/W2791339938","https://openalex.org/W2903181929","https://openalex.org/W2945782956","https://openalex.org/W2955426035","https://openalex.org/W2963317745","https://openalex.org/W3005204480","https://openalex.org/W3006765757","https://openalex.org/W3023669592","https://openalex.org/W3037631072","https://openalex.org/W3081697577","https://openalex.org/W3170196437","https://openalex.org/W3207692912","https://openalex.org/W4213219337","https://openalex.org/W4225917661","https://openalex.org/W4226439745","https://openalex.org/W4226494903","https://openalex.org/W4240592325","https://openalex.org/W4292382515","https://openalex.org/W4294988388","https://openalex.org/W4322730848","https://openalex.org/W4385202314","https://openalex.org/W4386903313","https://openalex.org/W4388191662","https://openalex.org/W4389060540","https://openalex.org/W4390686423","https://openalex.org/W4391947389","https://openalex.org/W4403127064"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2112866972","https://openalex.org/W4240233711","https://openalex.org/W2900606913","https://openalex.org/W4320003279","https://openalex.org/W2326910963","https://openalex.org/W3111008797","https://openalex.org/W4392628806","https://openalex.org/W2513937777","https://openalex.org/W2350818122","https://openalex.org/W2362176868"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"As":[0],"electricity":[1,60,212],"consumption":[2,58],"in":[3,175,198],"commercial":[4],"and":[5,20,59,113,160,201,220],"residential":[6],"buildings":[7,197],"continues":[8],"to":[9,55,93,126,169],"rise,":[10],"reducing":[11],"energy":[12,32,38,57,82,114,184],"costs":[13],"presents":[14],"an":[15],"increasing":[16],"challenge.":[17],"Heating,":[18],"ventilating,":[19],"air-conditioning":[21],"(HVAC)":[22],"systems,":[23],"which":[24,155],"typically":[25],"account":[26],"for":[27,37,179],"40%\u201350%":[28],"of":[29,42,48,65,124,135,183,218],"a":[30,98,148,192],"building\u2019s":[31],"use,":[33],"are":[34],"prime":[35],"targets":[36],"savings.":[39],"Intelligent":[40],"control":[41,70,133],"HVAC":[43,49,66,77,137],"temperature":[44],"through":[45],"the":[46,73,117,122,132,136,139,143,171,180,202,216],"exploitation":[47],"load":[50,78,167],"flexibility":[51,79],"brings":[52],"significant":[53],"potential":[54],"reduce":[56,127,210],"expenses.":[61],"The":[62,106,186],"nonlinear":[63],"models":[64],"systems":[67],"challenge":[68],"traditional":[69],"methods,":[71],"while":[72,116,214],"uncertainty":[74],"introduced":[75],"by":[76,138],"complicates":[80],"distributed":[81],"resource":[83],"(DER)":[84],"management":[85],"using":[86,191],"conventional":[87],"optimal":[88],"dispatch":[89],"techniques.":[90],"In":[91,142],"response":[92],"these":[94],"challenges,":[95],"we":[96,146],"propose":[97],"hierarchical":[99],"multi-agent":[100,149],"deep":[101],"reinforcement":[102],"learning":[103],"(DRL)":[104],"approach.":[105],"lower-level":[107,140],"agents":[108,120],"focus":[109],"on":[110,131,152,158,165],"balancing":[111],"comfort":[112,217],"conservation,":[115],"upper-level":[118,144],"DRL":[119],"optimize":[121],"use":[123],"DERs":[125],"peak":[128],"demand":[129],"based":[130,151,157],"outcomes":[134],"agents.":[141],"agents,":[145],"incorporate":[147],"structure":[150],"ensemble":[153],"learning,":[154],"acts":[156],"historical":[159],"current":[161],"data":[162],"without":[163],"relying":[164],"precise":[166],"forecasting":[168],"address":[170],"delayed":[172],"rewarding":[173],"issue":[174],"DRL.":[176],"This":[177],"allows":[178],"effective":[181],"reduction":[182],"costs.":[185],"proposed":[187],"method":[188],"is":[189],"tested":[190],"real-world":[193],"microgrid":[194],"comprising":[195],"413":[196],"Southern":[199],"California,":[200],"results":[203],"demonstrate":[204],"that":[205],"our":[206],"approach":[207],"can":[208],"significantly":[209],"overall":[211],"bills":[213],"ensuring":[215],"consumers":[219],"residents.":[221]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-04T09:04:59.091469","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}