{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4404520738","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2024.3491578","title":"Unearthing Gas-Wasting Code Smells in Smart Contracts With Large Language Models","display_name":"Unearthing Gas-Wasting Code Smells in Smart Contracts With Large Language Models","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-11-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4404520738","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2024.3491578"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tse.2024.3491578","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2024.3491578","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8351582","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","issn_l":"0098-5589","issn":["0098-5589","1939-3520","2326-3881"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/view/author/72794.html>","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008129781","display_name":"Jinan Jiang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2065-9211"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I14243506","display_name":"Hong Kong Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/0030zas98","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jinan Jiang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100342798","display_name":"Zihao Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4382-577X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I14243506","display_name":"Hong Kong Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/0030zas98","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zihao Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Haoran Qin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2350-7698"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I14243506","display_name":"Hong Kong Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/0030zas98","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Haoran Qin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067240337","display_name":"Muhui Jiang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2196-6894"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I14243506","display_name":"Hong Kong Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/0030zas98","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhui Jiang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100400376","display_name":"Xiapu Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9082-3208"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I14243506","display_name":"Hong Kong Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/0030zas98","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiapu Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Xiaoming Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3130-0554"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I14243506","display_name":"Hong Kong Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/0030zas98","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaoming Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5115695530","display_name":"Haoyu Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1100-8633"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47720641","display_name":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00p991c53","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Haoyu Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000449889","display_name":"Yutian Tang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5677-4564"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7882870","display_name":"University of Glasgow","ror":"https://ror.org/00vtgdb53","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7882870"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yutian Tang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computing Science, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computing Science, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I7882870"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071764813","display_name":"Chenxiong Qian","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6201-6011"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I889458895","display_name":"University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/02zhqgq86","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I889458895"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chenxiong Qian","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science Department, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science Department, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I889458895"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100443178","display_name":"Ting Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9165-8331"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I150229711","display_name":"University of Electronic Science and Technology of China","ror":"https://ror.org/04qr3zq92","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ting Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":10,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5008129781"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I14243506"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":5.358,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":7,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95975606,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"51","issue":"4","first_page":"879","last_page":"903"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9265999794006348,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9265999794006348,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8465995192527771},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/code","display_name":"Code (set theory)","score":0.5575604438781738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.47761863470077515},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-engineering","display_name":"Software engineering","score":0.41968581080436707},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wasting","display_name":"Wasting","score":0.41131407022476196},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.4048973321914673}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8465995192527771},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776760102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5139990","display_name":"Code (set theory)","level":3,"score":0.5575604438781738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.47761863470077515},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115903868","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80993","display_name":"Software engineering","level":1,"score":0.41968581080436707},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779764123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7972881","display_name":"Wasting","level":2,"score":0.41131407022476196},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.4048973321914673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134018914","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162606","display_name":"Endocrinology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tse.2024.3491578","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2024.3491578","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8351582","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","issn_l":"0098-5589","issn":["0098-5589","1939-3520","2326-3881"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:eprints.gla.ac.uk:339786","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/view/author/72794.html>","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210235606","display_name":"ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam)","issn_l":"2622-8912","issn":["2622-8912","2622-8920"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"PeerReviewed"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:eprints.gla.ac.uk:339786","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/view/author/72794.html>","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210235606","display_name":"ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam)","issn_l":"2622-8912","issn":["2622-8912","2622-8920"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"PeerReviewed"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2795951424","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62332004","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4223574508","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62202306","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":86,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2104329051","https://openalex.org/W2131399871","https://openalex.org/W2144720684","https://openalex.org/W2158744032","https://openalex.org/W2566208852","https://openalex.org/W2598139937","https://openalex.org/W2791394258","https://openalex.org/W3009278394","https://openalex.org/W3013473330","https://openalex.org/W3020268419","https://openalex.org/W3022375109","https://openalex.org/W3042306937","https://openalex.org/W3098267758","https://openalex.org/W3112215678","https://openalex.org/W3115894062","https://openalex.org/W3208517628","https://openalex.org/W4200574850","https://openalex.org/W4212832141","https://openalex.org/W4281387900","https://openalex.org/W4285248702","https://openalex.org/W4289313229","https://openalex.org/W4307886768","https://openalex.org/W4312402125","https://openalex.org/W4378591002","https://openalex.org/W4382203557","https://openalex.org/W4384302761","https://openalex.org/W4384304728","https://openalex.org/W4384304865","https://openalex.org/W4384345635","https://openalex.org/W4384345708","https://openalex.org/W4384345745","https://openalex.org/W4384345748","https://openalex.org/W4385573087","https://openalex.org/W4386211180","https://openalex.org/W4386436496","https://openalex.org/W4388483128","https://openalex.org/W4388483194","https://openalex.org/W4388483238","https://openalex.org/W4388483380","https://openalex.org/W4388483492","https://openalex.org/W4388483497","https://openalex.org/W4388483502","https://openalex.org/W4388483640","https://openalex.org/W4389158536","https://openalex.org/W4389159862","https://openalex.org/W4389163154","https://openalex.org/W4392637287","https://openalex.org/W4393305539","https://openalex.org/W4395029328","https://openalex.org/W4401043240","https://openalex.org/W4402665833","https://openalex.org/W4404060141","https://openalex.org/W6676343382","https://openalex.org/W6739901393","https://openalex.org/W6752735279","https://openalex.org/W6759458195","https://openalex.org/W6759579507","https://openalex.org/W6767858076","https://openalex.org/W6778883912","https://openalex.org/W6782465632","https://openalex.org/W6793285265","https://openalex.org/W6793945422","https://openalex.org/W6798182279","https://openalex.org/W6809646742","https://openalex.org/W6809968427","https://openalex.org/W6810344706","https://openalex.org/W6810874553","https://openalex.org/W6838329711","https://openalex.org/W6838847921","https://openalex.org/W6838865847","https://openalex.org/W6846029027","https://openalex.org/W6847022633","https://openalex.org/W6847351106","https://openalex.org/W6849437247","https://openalex.org/W6850832685","https://openalex.org/W6850886341","https://openalex.org/W6852712537","https://openalex.org/W6852721067","https://openalex.org/W6852860393","https://openalex.org/W6853128477","https://openalex.org/W6853465110","https://openalex.org/W6854013397","https://openalex.org/W6855099719","https://openalex.org/W6858067493","https://openalex.org/W6858585666","https://openalex.org/W6861190020"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2534612903","https://openalex.org/W2780989196","https://openalex.org/W2468482093","https://openalex.org/W2004491733","https://openalex.org/W3098037799","https://openalex.org/W2607760820","https://openalex.org/W2160269050","https://openalex.org/W4300179771","https://openalex.org/W3194644769","https://openalex.org/W4301393061"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Smart":[0],"contracts":[1,33,216],"are":[2,34],"automated":[3],"programs":[4],"stored":[5],"on":[6,148,206],"a":[7,47,57,129,183,204],"blockchain,":[8],"featuring":[9],"unique":[10],"attributes":[11],"such":[12,98],"as":[13],"permissionlessness,":[14],"trustlessness,":[15],"immutability,":[16],"and":[17,64,105,112,191],"transparency.":[18],"These":[19],"properties":[20],"underpin":[21],"an":[22],"array":[23],"of":[24,95,140,166,185,208],"unprecedented":[25],"decentralized":[26],"services.":[27],"Compiled":[28],"into":[29],"bytecodes,":[30],"Ethereum":[31,38,155],"smart":[32,156],"executed":[35],"within":[36],"the":[37,65,81,93,137,141,150,209],"Virtual":[39],"Machine":[40],"(EVM).":[41],"Ethereum's":[42],"distinct":[43],"gas":[44,68,75],"mechanism":[45],"assigns":[46],"price":[48],"to":[49,120,134,182],"each":[50,207],"bytecode":[51],"execution,":[52],"incentivizing":[53],"resource-efficient":[54],"computing.":[55],"However,":[56],"disconnect":[58],"exists":[59],"between":[60],"conventional":[61],"coding":[62],"practices":[63],"less":[66],"intuitive":[67],"consumption":[69],"computation":[70],"mechanism,":[71],"resulting":[72],"in":[73,88,131,172,188,193],"inadvertent":[74],"wastage.":[76],"Gas-wasting":[77],"code":[78,83,99,163,179,211],"smells":[79,100,180,212],"at":[80],"source":[82],"level":[84],"have":[85,127],"been":[86],"studied":[87],"various":[89],"related":[90],"works;":[91],"however,":[92],"task":[94],"manually":[96],"identifying":[97],"by":[101],"reading":[102],"through":[103],"codes":[104],"reasoning":[106],"about":[107],"them":[108],"is":[109],"both":[110],"time-consuming":[111],"economically":[113],"inefficient.":[114],"In":[115,144],"this":[116],"work,":[117],"we":[118,146,159],"propose":[119],"leverage":[121],"Large":[122],"Language":[123],"Models":[124],"(LLMs),":[125],"which":[126,167],"seen":[128],"surge":[130],"popularity":[132],"recently,":[133],"facilitate":[135],"undertaking":[136],"labor-intensive":[138],"part":[139],"code-smell-finding":[142],"pipeline.":[143],"particular,":[145],"focus":[147],"Solidity,":[149],"predominant":[151],"programming":[152],"language":[153],"for":[154],"contracts.":[157,225],"Overall,":[158],"identified":[160,210],"26":[161],"gas-wasting":[162],"smells,":[164],"out":[165],"13":[168],"were":[169],"not":[170],"presented":[171],"previous":[173,220],"papers.":[174],"On":[175],"average,":[176],"applying":[177],"these":[178],"led":[181],"reduction":[184],"approximately":[186],"10.534%":[187],"deployment":[189],"costs":[190,196],"21.528%":[192],"message":[194],"call":[195],"across":[197],"our":[198],"test":[199],"codes.":[200],"We":[201],"further":[202],"make":[203],"report":[205],"with":[213],"associated":[214],"example":[215],"sourced":[217],"from":[218],"either":[219],"literature":[221],"or":[222],"recently":[223],"deployed":[224]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-04-09T08:11:56.329763","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
