{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4387623715","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","title":"Differential Testing of Machine Translators Based on Compositional Semantics","display_name":"Differential Testing of Machine Translators Based on Compositional Semantics","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-10-13","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4387623715","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2023.3323969"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8351582","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","issn_l":"0098-5589","issn":["0098-5589","1939-3520","2326-3881"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100319073","display_name":"Shuang Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8766-7235"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I78988378","display_name":"Renmin University of China","ror":"https://ror.org/041pakw92","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I78988378"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shuang Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information, Renmin University of China, Beijing, P.R. China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8766-7235","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information, Renmin University of China, Beijing, P.R. China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I78988378"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101504349","display_name":"Shujie Dou","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162868743","display_name":"Tianjin University","ror":"https://ror.org/012tb2g32","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162868743"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shujie Dou","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Intelligence and Computing, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7677-6727","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Intelligence and Computing, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162868743"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100365555","display_name":"Junjie Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3056-9962"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162868743","display_name":"Tianjin University","ror":"https://ror.org/012tb2g32","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162868743"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Junjie Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Intelligence and Computing, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3056-9962","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Intelligence and Computing, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162868743"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103075724","display_name":"Zhirun Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9613-1542"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162868743","display_name":"Tianjin University","ror":"https://ror.org/012tb2g32","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162868743"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhirun Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of New Media and Communication, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9613-1542","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of New Media and Communication, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162868743"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5023557586","display_name":"Ye Lu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0805-6394"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I205237279","display_name":"Nankai University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y1kjr75","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205237279"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ye Lu","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Cyber Science, Nankai University, Tianjin, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0805-6394","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Cyber Science, Nankai University, Tianjin, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I205237279"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.6345,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.73727962,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"49","issue":"12","first_page":"5046","last_page":"5059"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.998199999332428,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.998199999332428,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10743","display_name":"Software Testing and Debugging Techniques","score":0.982200026512146,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.972000002861023,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.902015745639801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-translation","display_name":"Machine translation","score":0.7447295784950256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.684356689453125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/principle-of-compositionality","display_name":"Principle of compositionality","score":0.6061656475067139},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.593302309513092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sentence","display_name":"Sentence","score":0.5923313498497009},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/parsing","display_name":"Parsing","score":0.5365337133407593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.4108961820602417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.32769015431404114}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.902015745639801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203005215","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79798","display_name":"Machine translation","level":2,"score":0.7447295784950256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.684356689453125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121375916","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q936559","display_name":"Principle of compositionality","level":2,"score":0.6061656475067139},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.593302309513092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777530160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41796","display_name":"Sentence","level":2,"score":0.5923313498497009},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186644900","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194152","display_name":"Parsing","level":2,"score":0.5365337133407593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4108961820602417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.32769015431404114}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8351582","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","issn_l":"0098-5589","issn":["0098-5589","1939-3520","2326-3881"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2023.3323969","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8351582","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","issn_l":"0098-5589","issn":["0098-5589","1939-3520","2326-3881"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.4099999964237213,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1974609568","display_name":"\u9762\u5411\u6df7\u5408OLTP\u548cOLAP\u7684\u5206\u5e03\u5f0f\u56fe\u6570\u636e\u5e93\u6280\u672f\u7814\u7a76","funder_award_id":"61972403","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5552466474","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62372253","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8895623615","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"61802275","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":48,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W109452506","https://openalex.org/W1976919795","https://openalex.org/W2060114559","https://openalex.org/W2066551267","https://openalex.org/W2092785620","https://openalex.org/W2101105183","https://openalex.org/W2102443632","https://openalex.org/W2414287720","https://openalex.org/W2525778437","https://openalex.org/W2701082322","https://openalex.org/W2767899794","https://openalex.org/W2794365787","https://openalex.org/W2888824816","https://openalex.org/W2896457183","https://openalex.org/W2963270153","https://openalex.org/W2965373594","https://openalex.org/W2983836503","https://openalex.org/W2997731614","https://openalex.org/W3016973796","https://openalex.org/W3025206012","https://openalex.org/W3039695075","https://openalex.org/W3090988182","https://openalex.org/W3091157996","https://openalex.org/W3091407209","https://openalex.org/W3100869665","https://openalex.org/W3105813095","https://openalex.org/W3117126855","https://openalex.org/W3125053552","https://openalex.org/W3131034920","https://openalex.org/W3154106427","https://openalex.org/W3154674654","https://openalex.org/W3155609600","https://openalex.org/W3156636935","https://openalex.org/W3163644064","https://openalex.org/W3175362188","https://openalex.org/W3211708465","https://openalex.org/W4205586222","https://openalex.org/W4205876794","https://openalex.org/W4245734123","https://openalex.org/W4284675318","https://openalex.org/W6604335577","https://openalex.org/W6682631176","https://openalex.org/W6727690538","https://openalex.org/W6746141323","https://openalex.org/W6749740488","https://openalex.org/W6755207826","https://openalex.org/W6766673545","https://openalex.org/W6787916384"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3095531775","https://openalex.org/W1526190050","https://openalex.org/W4251923961","https://openalex.org/W2477397717","https://openalex.org/W2010490241","https://openalex.org/W2500457737","https://openalex.org/W4287025733","https://openalex.org/W3192500523","https://openalex.org/W4317425742","https://openalex.org/W2097744609"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Powered":[0],"by":[1,113,137,234],"the":[2,76,98,105,114,121,130,147,152,167,231,237,243,248],"advances":[3],"of":[4,100,107,116,161,170,242],"deep":[5],"neural":[6],"networks,":[7],"machine":[8,35,63,82,93,195],"translation":[9,94],"software":[10],"has":[11],"achieved":[12],"rapid":[13],"progresses":[14],"recently.":[15],"Machine":[16],"translators":[17,36,90],"are":[18,37],"widely":[19],"adopted":[20],"in":[21,62,240,247,255],"people\u2019s":[22],"daily":[23],"lives,":[24],"e.g.,":[25],"for":[26,69],"information":[27],"consumption,":[28],"medical":[29],"consumption":[30],"and":[31,41,65,120,140,159,178,202,206,215,225,260],"online":[32],"shopping.":[33],"However,":[34],"far":[38],"from":[39],"robust,":[40],"may":[42],"produce":[43],"wrong":[44],"translations,":[45],"which":[46,102,132],"could":[47],"potentially":[48],"cause":[49],"misunderstandings":[50],"or":[51],"even":[52],"serious":[53],"consequences.":[54],"It":[55,265],"is":[56,111],"thus":[57],"critical":[58],"to":[59,80,125,150],"detect":[60],"errors":[61,232],"translators,":[64,196],"provide":[66],"informative":[67],"feedback":[68],"developers.":[70],"In":[71,84,143],"this":[72],"work,":[73],"we":[74,86,128,145,165],"adopt":[75],"differential":[77],"testing":[78],"method":[79],"test":[81],"translators.":[83],"particular,":[85,144],"use":[87],"mature":[88],"commercial":[89],"as":[91],"reference":[92],"engines.":[95],"Based":[96],"on":[97,192],"principle":[99],"compositionality,":[101],"specifies":[103],"that":[104,221],"meaning":[106],"a":[108,157,186],"complex":[109],"expression":[110],"determined":[112],"meanings":[115],"its":[117,162],"constituent":[118],"expressions":[119],"syntactic":[122,138],"rules":[123],"used":[124,254],"combine":[126],"them,":[127],"design":[129],"oracle":[131],"conducts":[133],"similarity":[134,169],"comparison":[135],"guided":[136],"structure":[139,154],"semantic":[141,168],"encoding.":[142],"employ":[146],"constituency":[148],"parsing":[149],"obtain":[151],"part-whole":[153],"relation":[155],"between":[156],"sentence":[158,172],"one":[160],"component.":[163],"Then":[164],"compute":[166],"each":[171],"part":[173],"with":[174,209,257,270],"pre-trained":[175],"language":[176],"model":[177],"expert":[179],"knowledge.":[180],"We":[181],"implement":[182],"our":[183],"approach":[184],"into":[185],"tool":[187],"named":[188],"DCS,":[189],"conduct":[190],"experiments":[191],"three":[193],"popular":[194],"i.e.,":[197,213],"Google":[198],"translate,":[199,205],"Baidu":[200],"translate":[201],"Microsoft":[203],"Bing":[204],"compare":[207],"DCS":[208,222,235,251],"two":[210],"state-of-the-art":[211,271],"approaches,":[212],"CIT":[214],"CAT.":[216],"The":[217],"experiment":[218],"results":[219],"show":[220],"achieves":[223],"8.6%":[224],"35.4%":[226],"higher":[227,262],"precision,":[228],"respectively.":[229],"Moreover,":[230],"reported":[233],"have":[236],"lowest":[238],"redundancy":[239],"terms":[241],"duplicated":[244],"error":[245],"locations":[246],"source":[249],"sentence.":[250],"can":[252],"be":[253],"complement":[256],"existing":[258],"approaches":[259],"achieve":[261],"detection":[263],"precision.":[264],"also":[266],"shows":[267],"comparable":[268],"efficiency":[269],"approaches.":[272]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
