{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3170417470","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2021.3124332","title":"AI-Enabled Automation for Completeness Checking of Privacy Policies","display_name":"AI-Enabled Automation for Completeness Checking of Privacy Policies","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-11-02","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3170417470","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2021.3124332","mag":"3170417470"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tse.2021.3124332","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2021.3124332","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8351582","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","issn_l":"0098-5589","issn":["0098-5589","1939-3520","2326-3881"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["arxiv","crossref","datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2106.05688","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027277486","display_name":"Orlando Amaral","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5140-6439"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Orlando Amaral","raw_affiliation_strings":["SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5140-6439","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063256854","display_name":"Sallam Abualhaija","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6095-447X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sallam Abualhaija","raw_affiliation_strings":["SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6095-447X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5023761803","display_name":"Damiano Torre","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1656-3057"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Damiano Torre","raw_affiliation_strings":["SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg, Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg, Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022905724","display_name":"Mehrdad Sabetzadeh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4711-8319"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mehrdad Sabetzadeh","raw_affiliation_strings":["SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5078533117","display_name":"Lionel Briand","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1393-1010"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lionel C. Briand","raw_affiliation_strings":["SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1393-1010","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"SnT Centre for Security, Reliability, and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.9068,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":5,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.88760209,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"48","issue":"11","first_page":"4647","last_page":"4674"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11045","display_name":"Privacy, Security, and Data Protection","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11045","display_name":"Privacy, Security, and Data Protection","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.9812999963760376,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10927","display_name":"Access Control and Trust","score":0.9569000005722046,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.803026020526886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/privacy-policy","display_name":"Privacy policy","score":0.7847902774810791},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/completeness","display_name":"Completeness (order theory)","score":0.727806568145752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/general-data-protection-regulation","display_name":"General Data Protection Regulation","score":0.5686240196228027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-privacy","display_name":"Information privacy","score":0.5401536226272583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/privacy-software","display_name":"Privacy software","score":0.540067195892334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/privacy-by-design","display_name":"Privacy by Design","score":0.5326414108276367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/privacy-law","display_name":"Privacy law","score":0.5152673721313477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.48443272709846497},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-protection-act-1998","display_name":"Data Protection Act 1998","score":0.2764791250228882}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.803026020526886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C102938260","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1999831","display_name":"Privacy policy","level":3,"score":0.7847902774810791},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17231256","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5156540","display_name":"Completeness (order theory)","level":2,"score":0.727806568145752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3090818","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172506","display_name":"General Data Protection Regulation","level":3,"score":0.5686240196228027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123201435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q456632","display_name":"Information privacy","level":2,"score":0.5401536226272583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C509729295","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7246032","display_name":"Privacy software","level":3,"score":0.540067195892334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C193934123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7246028","display_name":"Privacy by Design","level":3,"score":0.5326414108276367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C141972696","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1247836","display_name":"Privacy law","level":4,"score":0.5152673721313477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.48443272709846497},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C69360830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172237","display_name":"Data Protection Act 1998","level":2,"score":0.2764791250228882},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tse.2021.3124332","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.2021.3124332","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8351582","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","issn_l":"0098-5589","issn":["0098-5589","1939-3520","2326-3881"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2106.05688","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2106.05688","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2106.05688","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"mag:3170417470","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2106.05688.pdf","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","raw_type":null},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2106.05688","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2106.05688","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2106.05688","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2106.05688","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2106.05688","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5099999904632568,"display_name":"Decent work and economic growth","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334593","display_name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","ror":"https://ror.org/01h531d29"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":80,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W97201605","https://openalex.org/W605474867","https://openalex.org/W1455447990","https://openalex.org/W1532325895","https://openalex.org/W1570448133","https://openalex.org/W1579838312","https://openalex.org/W1663984431","https://openalex.org/W1832693441","https://openalex.org/W1901616594","https://openalex.org/W1966976587","https://openalex.org/W1982982698","https://openalex.org/W1991877654","https://openalex.org/W1998883278","https://openalex.org/W2053154970","https://openalex.org/W2064675550","https://openalex.org/W2154359981","https://openalex.org/W2158139315","https://openalex.org/W2164019165","https://openalex.org/W2250473257","https://openalex.org/W2250480277","https://openalex.org/W2250539671","https://openalex.org/W2250861254","https://openalex.org/W2251771443","https://openalex.org/W2251991755","https://openalex.org/W2339322788","https://openalex.org/W2376050373","https://openalex.org/W2394985082","https://openalex.org/W2460676686","https://openalex.org/W2466573295","https://openalex.org/W2467887935","https://openalex.org/W2493916176","https://openalex.org/W2498013299","https://openalex.org/W2529281176","https://openalex.org/W2760392765","https://openalex.org/W2790404387","https://openalex.org/W2791737564","https://openalex.org/W2795807997","https://openalex.org/W2798819017","https://openalex.org/W2798838283","https://openalex.org/W2806758597","https://openalex.org/W2882319491","https://openalex.org/W2883904019","https://openalex.org/W2895782836","https://openalex.org/W2896054571","https://openalex.org/W2901934818","https://openalex.org/W2911842117","https://openalex.org/W2949541494","https://openalex.org/W2950577311","https://openalex.org/W2952097512","https://openalex.org/W2962739339","https://openalex.org/W2963094141","https://openalex.org/W2963341956","https://openalex.org/W2963499246","https://openalex.org/W2964073004","https://openalex.org/W2964085268","https://openalex.org/W2976100997","https://openalex.org/W2988217457","https://openalex.org/W3024271340","https://openalex.org/W3037167671","https://openalex.org/W3043824836","https://openalex.org/W3085592908","https://openalex.org/W3092011919","https://openalex.org/W3103666600","https://openalex.org/W3103764297","https://openalex.org/W3113817984","https://openalex.org/W3132536667","https://openalex.org/W3133932773","https://openalex.org/W3210030168","https://openalex.org/W4213009331","https://openalex.org/W4294214983","https://openalex.org/W6603974228","https://openalex.org/W6618749161","https://openalex.org/W6636510571","https://openalex.org/W6682839988","https://openalex.org/W6683557909","https://openalex.org/W6684165356","https://openalex.org/W6684953378","https://openalex.org/W6734040793","https://openalex.org/W6755207826","https://openalex.org/W6780909900"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3211102095","https://openalex.org/W3092011919","https://openalex.org/W2293557490","https://openalex.org/W3132536667","https://openalex.org/W2774566305","https://openalex.org/W3156874074","https://openalex.org/W2970017784","https://openalex.org/W2962695704","https://openalex.org/W2295780304","https://openalex.org/W3006463555","https://openalex.org/W3202804755","https://openalex.org/W2048089596","https://openalex.org/W2945416730","https://openalex.org/W205521783","https://openalex.org/W2982471627","https://openalex.org/W3041503960","https://openalex.org/W120940218","https://openalex.org/W2108692244","https://openalex.org/W3194692502","https://openalex.org/W2795723562"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Technological":[0],"advances":[1],"in":[2,84,175,252,257,261],"information":[3,173],"sharing":[4],"have":[5],"raised":[6],"concerns":[7],"about":[8,16],"data":[9,20],"protection.":[10],"Privacy":[11],"policies":[12,43,81,177,195],"contain":[13],"privacy-related":[14,94,131],"requirements":[15],"how":[17],"the":[18,49,65,75,113,130,171,183,197,213],"personal":[19],"of":[21,67,77,116,133,142,153,160,203,212,215,218,234,238,255],"individuals":[22],"will":[23],"be":[24],"handled":[25],"by":[26,156],"an":[27,38,148,253],"organization":[28,89],"or":[29,37],"a":[30,34,68,136,140,158,201,232,242],"software":[31,95],"system":[32],"(e.g.,":[33],"web":[35],"service":[36],"app).":[39],"In":[40,105],"Europe,":[41],"privacy":[42,69,80,117,176,194,206],"are":[44],"subject":[45],"to":[46,62,74,128,241],"compliance":[47,59],"with":[48],"General":[50],"Data":[51],"Protection":[52],"Regulation":[53],"(GDPR).":[54],"A":[55],"prerequisite":[56],"for":[57,112],"GDPR":[58],"checking":[60,99,115],"is":[61,71,100],"verify":[63],"whether":[64],"content":[66,174],"policy":[70],"complete":[72],"according":[73],"provisions":[76,132],"GDPR.":[78],"Incomplete":[79],"might":[82],"result":[83],"large":[85],"fines":[86],"on":[87,151],"violating":[88],"as":[90,92],"well":[91],"incomplete":[93],"specifications.":[96],"Manual":[97],"completeness":[98,114,143,184,220],"both":[101],"time-consuming":[102],"and":[103,139,164,178,236,259],"error-prone.":[104],"this":[106],"paper,":[107],"we":[108,123,146,169,190],"propose":[109],"AI-based":[110],"automation":[111],"policies.":[118],"Through":[119],"systematic":[120],"qualitative":[121],"methods,":[122],"first":[124],"build":[125],"two":[126],"artifacts":[127,155],"characterize":[129],"GDPR,":[134],"namely":[135],"conceptual":[137],"model":[138],"set":[141,202],"criteria.":[144,185],"Then,":[145],"develop":[147],"automated":[149],"solution":[150],"top":[152],"these":[154],"leveraging":[157],"combination":[159],"natural":[161],"language":[162],"processing":[163],"supervised":[165],"machine":[166],"learning.":[167],"Specifically,":[168],"identify":[170],"GDPR-relevant":[172],"subsequently":[179],"check":[180],"them":[181],"against":[182],"To":[186],"evaluate":[187],"our":[188,208,249],"approach,":[189],"collected":[191],"234":[192],"real":[193],"from":[196],"fund":[198],"industry.":[199],"Over":[200],"48":[204],"unseen":[205],"policies,":[207],"approach":[209,229,250],"detected":[210],"300":[211],"total":[214],"334":[216],"violations":[217],"some":[219],"criteria":[221],"correctly,":[222],"while":[223],"producing":[224],"23":[225],"false":[226],"positives.":[227],"The":[228],"thus":[230],"has":[231],"precision":[233,258],"92.9%":[235],"recall":[237],"89.8%.":[239],"Compared":[240],"baseline":[243],"that":[244],"applies":[245],"keyword":[246],"search":[247],"only,":[248],"results":[251],"improvement":[254],"24.5%":[256],"38%":[260],"recall.":[262]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
