{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4416114170","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnsm.2025.3631463","title":"Accurate Estimation of Selfish Mining Rate by Stale Block Ratio in a Proof-of-Work Blockchain","display_name":"Accurate Estimation of Selfish Mining Rate by Stale Block Ratio in a Proof-of-Work Blockchain","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4416114170","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnsm.2025.3631463"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tnsm.2025.3631463","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnsm.2025.3631463","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S173527311","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management","issn_l":"1932-4537","issn":["1932-4537","2373-7379"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055546913","display_name":"Sheng\u2010Wei Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0746-2796"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I125934054","display_name":"National United University","ror":"https://ror.org/04twccc71","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I125934054"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sheng-Wei Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic Engineering, National United University, Miaoli, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0746-2796","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic Engineering, National United University, Miaoli, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125934054"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5066832311","display_name":"Show\u2010Shiow Tzeng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5385-3467"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135551196","display_name":"National Kaohsiung Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tsc8g87","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Show-Shiow Tzeng","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Engineering, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2451-0420","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":2645,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2645},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.7849,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.90030352,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":null,"first_page":"880","last_page":"895"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.939300000667572,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.939300000667572,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14347","display_name":"Big Data and Digital Economy","score":0.014800000004470348,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10101","display_name":"Cloud Computing and Resource Management","score":0.00430000014603138,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/block","display_name":"Block (permutation group theory)","score":0.7160000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.53329998254776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.5267999768257141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/resource","display_name":"Resource (disambiguation)","score":0.4196999967098236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/block-size","display_name":"Block size","score":0.352400004863739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scheme","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","score":0.34119999408721924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/estimation","display_name":"Estimation","score":0.3391999900341034}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8004000186920166},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777210771","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4927124","display_name":"Block (permutation group theory)","level":2,"score":0.7160000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.53329998254776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.5267999768257141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.5110999941825867},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206345919","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20380951","display_name":"Resource (disambiguation)","level":2,"score":0.4196999967098236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41431624","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1053357","display_name":"Block size","level":3,"score":0.352400004863739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.34119999408721924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C96250715","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q965330","display_name":"Estimation","level":2,"score":0.3391999900341034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126255220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141495","display_name":"Mathematical optimization","level":1,"score":0.3246000111103058},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993597952","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q108123644","display_name":"Block model","level":2,"score":0.31529998779296875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2983050975","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q88287214","display_name":"Block structure","level":3,"score":0.3043999969959259},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40969351","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3516228","display_name":"Word error rate","level":2,"score":0.288100004196167},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.27160000801086426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167928553","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1376021","display_name":"Estimation theory","level":2,"score":0.2694999873638153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.26100000739097595}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tnsm.2025.3631463","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnsm.2025.3631463","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S173527311","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management","issn_l":"1932-4537","issn":["1932-4537","2373-7379"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":41,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1504695911","https://openalex.org/W1907293129","https://openalex.org/W2103863878","https://openalex.org/W2295506186","https://openalex.org/W2617729518","https://openalex.org/W2754529701","https://openalex.org/W2901770766","https://openalex.org/W2963822137","https://openalex.org/W2999380855","https://openalex.org/W3006232485","https://openalex.org/W3024838200","https://openalex.org/W3069823195","https://openalex.org/W3077087723","https://openalex.org/W3110928664","https://openalex.org/W3113673319","https://openalex.org/W3117159322","https://openalex.org/W3118420191","https://openalex.org/W3127613622","https://openalex.org/W3156382242","https://openalex.org/W3190602546","https://openalex.org/W3201477816","https://openalex.org/W3217228670","https://openalex.org/W4213070403","https://openalex.org/W4214883515","https://openalex.org/W4285220218","https://openalex.org/W4290996635","https://openalex.org/W4292316618","https://openalex.org/W4293704442","https://openalex.org/W4312507666","https://openalex.org/W4316659384","https://openalex.org/W4376479252","https://openalex.org/W4388739197","https://openalex.org/W4391983625","https://openalex.org/W4392158199","https://openalex.org/W4392859663","https://openalex.org/W4401719221","https://openalex.org/W4402156332","https://openalex.org/W4403864801","https://openalex.org/W4404410834","https://openalex.org/W4405440239","https://openalex.org/W4411086774"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Selfish":[0],"mining":[1,28,75,112,123,162,173],"presents":[2],"a":[3,165],"significant":[4],"threat":[5],"to":[6,32,65,119,152],"Proof-of-Work":[7],"blockchains":[8,93],"by":[9],"compromising":[10],"fairness":[11],"among":[12],"miners":[13],"and":[14,25,36,189],"wasting":[15],"computational":[16],"resources":[17],"through":[18],"the":[19,39,55,67,70,73,121,171,191],"generation":[20],"of":[21,41,50,69,148,168,181,193],"stale":[22,42,89,107,128,141],"blocks.":[23],"Detecting":[24],"mitigating":[26],"selfish":[27,51,74,98,111,122,161,172],"attacks":[29],"is":[30,44,58,64],"crucial":[31],"maintain":[33],"blockchain":[34,199],"security":[35,196],"efficiency.":[37],"While":[38],"presence":[40],"blocks":[43],"commonly":[45],"used":[46],"as":[47],"an":[48,145],"indicator":[49],"mining,":[52],"merely":[53],"identifying":[54],"attacker\u2019s":[56],"existence":[57],"insufficient.":[59],"A":[60],"more":[61,194],"valuable":[62],"goal":[63],"estimate":[66,120],"extent":[68],"attack,":[71],"specifically":[72],"rate.":[76],"In":[77],"this":[78],"paper,":[79],"we":[80],"propose":[81],"two":[82,97],"analytical":[83,136],"models":[84,101,137],"that":[85,105,134],"can":[86,138],"precisely":[87],"calculate":[88,140],"block":[90,108,129,142],"ratios":[91,109],"in":[92,198],"with":[94,144,164,175],"one":[95],"or":[96],"miners.":[99],"These":[100],"provide":[102],"closed-form":[103],"functions":[104,118],"compute":[106],"given":[110],"rates.":[113],"We":[114],"then":[115],"derive":[116],"inverse":[117],"rate":[124,174],"based":[125],"on":[126],"observed":[127],"ratios.":[130],"Simulation":[131],"results":[132],"demonstrate":[133],"our":[135,156],"effectively":[139],"ratios,":[143],"average":[146],"discrepancy":[147],"only":[149],"3.12%":[150],"compared":[151],"simulation":[153],"results.":[154],"Furthermore,":[155],"estimation":[157],"approach":[158],"accurately":[159],"predicts":[160],"rates,":[163],"mean":[166],"error":[167],"2.82%.":[169],"Estimating":[170],"high":[176],"accuracy":[177],"enables":[178],"better":[179],"identification":[180],"malicious":[182],"attacks,":[183],"enhances":[184],"fairness,":[185],"optimizes":[186],"resource":[187],"allocation,":[188],"supports":[190],"development":[192],"robust":[195],"mechanisms":[197],"networks.":[200]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2025-11-11T00:00:00"}
