{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7128489203","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2026.3663284","title":"Why Not Wait and See: An Effective BDoS Mitigation Strategy From a Two-Stage Evolutionary Game Perspective","display_name":"Why Not Wait and See: An Effective BDoS Mitigation Strategy From a Two-Stage Evolutionary Game Perspective","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7128489203","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2026.3663284"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tnse.2026.3663284","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2026.3663284","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2484352698","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","issn_l":"2327-4697","issn":["2327-4697","2334-329X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Qinglin Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7263-8914"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210106808","display_name":"Guangzhou Institute of Advanced Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01vcw4681","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qinglin Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7263-8914","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125537602","display_name":"Boya Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210106808","display_name":"Guangzhou Institute of Advanced Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01vcw4681","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Boya Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5123103580","display_name":"Ruixin Huang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210106808","display_name":"Guangzhou Institute of Advanced Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01vcw4681","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ruixin Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3086-4030","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125551320","display_name":"Yuan Zhou","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210106808","display_name":"Guangzhou Institute of Advanced Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01vcw4681","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuan Zhou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125515612","display_name":"Yuan Liu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210106808","display_name":"Guangzhou Institute of Advanced Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01vcw4681","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuan Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0246-0778","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077138872","display_name":"Z. F. Tian","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9409-5359"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210106808","display_name":"Guangzhou Institute of Advanced Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01vcw4681","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhihong Tian","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9409-5359","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Industrial Control System Security, Huangpu Research School of Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210106808"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.12465183,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"6809","last_page":"6826"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9228000044822693,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9228000044822693,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11704","display_name":"Mobile Crowdsensing and Crowdsourcing","score":0.020099999383091927,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11896","display_name":"Opportunistic and Delay-Tolerant Networks","score":0.004800000227987766,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.6334999799728394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/verifiable-secret-sharing","display_name":"Verifiable secret sharing","score":0.6164000034332275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/game-theory","display_name":"Game theory","score":0.47290000319480896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/profit","display_name":"Profit (economics)","score":0.4715999960899353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/service","display_name":"Service (business)","score":0.4361000061035156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/denial-of-service-attack","display_name":"Denial-of-service attack","score":0.4187000095844269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/perspective","display_name":"Perspective (graphical)","score":0.4180999994277954},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/value","display_name":"Value (mathematics)","score":0.36149999499320984}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6629999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.6334999799728394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.6209999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C85847156","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59015987","display_name":"Verifiable secret sharing","level":3,"score":0.6164000034332275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177142836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44455","display_name":"Game theory","level":2,"score":0.47290000319480896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C181622380","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26911","display_name":"Profit (economics)","level":2,"score":0.4715999960899353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780378061","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25351891","display_name":"Service (business)","level":2,"score":0.4361000061035156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38822068","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131406","display_name":"Denial-of-service attack","level":3,"score":0.4187000095844269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12713177","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1900281","display_name":"Perspective (graphical)","level":2,"score":0.4180999994277954},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776291640","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2912517","display_name":"Value (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.36149999499320984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20249471","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2298789","display_name":"Evolutionary game theory","level":3,"score":0.3610999882221222},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93996380","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44127","display_name":"Server","level":2,"score":0.3400000035762787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112972136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7595718","display_name":"Stability (learning theory)","level":2,"score":0.31470000743865967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46814582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23389","display_name":"Nash equilibrium","level":2,"score":0.3061999976634979},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.3061999976634979},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779950589","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7544035","display_name":"Smart contract","level":3,"score":0.3012999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116537","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2169973","display_name":"Service provider","level":3,"score":0.2854999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177148314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170084","display_name":"Generalization","level":2,"score":0.272599995136261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781089630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21856745","display_name":"Realization (probability)","level":2,"score":0.26339998841285706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778024590","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2357432","display_name":"Cheating","level":2,"score":0.2596000134944916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29122968","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1414816","display_name":"Incentive","level":2,"score":0.25099998712539673}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tnse.2026.3663284","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2026.3663284","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2484352698","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","issn_l":"2327-4697","issn":["2327-4697","2334-329X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3282638140","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"T2522011","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7944616144","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2025B1515020022","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320337111","funder_display_name":"Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation of Guangdong Province"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320337111","display_name":"Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation of Guangdong Province","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Bitcoin's":[0],"security":[1,68],"is":[2,79,138,266],"based":[3,80],"on":[4,81],"the":[5,38,46,52,55,67,75,82,116,135,144,148,166,208,214,233,253,267,271,281],"assumption":[6,83],"that":[7,74,84,174,223,280],"a":[8,33,104,127,171,188,200,240,288],"sufficient":[9],"amount":[10],"of":[11,28,54,69,129,147,270],"benign":[12],"computing":[13,62],"power":[14,63,235,256],"participates":[15],"in":[16,42,120],"\u201cmining\u201d":[17],"new":[18,56],"blocks":[19],"by":[20,165,291],"generating":[21],"publicly":[22],"verifiable":[23],"proofs.":[24],"The":[25],"blockchain":[26,70,124,136,195,230],"denial":[27],"service":[29,48],"(BDoS)":[30],"attackers":[31,59,225],"generate":[32],"valid":[34],"proof":[35],"but":[36,49],"withhold":[37],"whole":[39],"block,":[40,57],"resulting":[41],"honest":[43,85,176],"miners":[44,86,177],"stopping":[45],"participation":[47],"waiting":[50],"for":[51,187],"exposure":[53],"and":[58,108,150,193,236],"achieving":[60],"21%":[61,78],"would":[64,284],"significantly":[65],"threaten":[66],"applications.":[71],"We":[72],"find":[73],"threshold":[76,257],"value":[77],"are":[87],"only":[88,227],"concerned":[89],"with":[90,213],"current":[91],"short-term":[92,110],"benefits,":[93],"i.e.,":[94],"they":[95],"have":[96],"an":[97],"immediate":[98],"tendency":[99],"to":[100,115,152,178,205,258,261,287],"stop":[101,229],"mining":[102,154,180,231,255],"once":[103],"BDoS":[105,191,212,224,289],"attack":[106,254,290],"occurs":[107],"their":[109],"gains":[111],"decline.":[112],"However,":[113],"similar":[114],"altruistic":[117],"behavior":[118],"observed":[119],"biological":[121],"systems,":[122],"certain":[123,241],"nodes":[125,142],"exhibit":[126],"form":[128],"rational":[130],"altruism":[131],"during":[132],"attacks.":[133],"When":[134],"system":[137,283],"under":[139],"threat,":[140],"these":[141],"prioritize":[143],"long-term":[145],"stability":[146],"network":[149],"choose":[151],"continue":[153],"honestly.":[155],"This":[156],"phenomenon":[157],"has":[158],"not":[159],"yet":[160],"been":[161],"well":[162],"studied.":[163],"Motivated":[164],"above":[167],"observation,":[168],"we":[169,198],"propose":[170],"resumption":[172],"strategy":[173,251],"enables":[175,252],"resume":[179],"after":[181],"pausing":[182],"(<inline-formula":[183],"xmlns:mml=\"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML\"":[184,216,244],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\"><tex-math":[185,217,245],"notation=\"LaTeX\">$S_\\text{CMP}$</tex-math></inline-formula>)":[186],"while,":[189],"mitigating":[190],"attacks":[192],"maintaining":[194],"security.":[196],"Subsequently,":[197],"formalize":[199],"two-stage":[201],"evolutionary":[202],"game":[203],"model":[204],"quantitatively":[206],"analyze":[207],"defensive":[209],"capacity":[210],"against":[211],"<inline-formula":[215,243],"notation=\"LaTeX\">$S_\\text{CMP}$</tex-math></inline-formula>":[218],"strategy.":[219],"Theoretical":[220],"analysis":[221],"shows":[222],"can":[226],"successfully":[228],"when":[232],"attacking":[234],"profit":[237],"factor":[238],"satisfy":[239],"condition":[242],"notation=\"LaTeX\">$\\text{Cd}_{dead}(\\gamma,w,\\alpha":[246],"_{A},c)$</tex-math></inline-formula>,":[247],"where":[248],"our":[249],"proposed":[250],"be":[259,285],"raised":[260],"33.1%":[262],"approaching":[263],"1/3,":[264],"which":[265],"upper":[268],"bound":[269],"byzantine":[272],"false":[273],"tolerance.":[274],"Real-world":[275],"experimental":[276],"results":[277],"also":[278],"indicate":[279],"Bitcoin":[282],"subject":[286],"2028.":[292]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-26T08:34:08.712188","created_date":"2026-02-11T00:00:00"}
