{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415933692","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2025.3628913","title":"Real-Time and Trustworthy Classification of IoT Traffic Using Lightweight Deep Learning","display_name":"Real-Time and Trustworthy Classification of IoT Traffic Using Lightweight Deep Learning","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-05","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415933692","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2025.3628913"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tnse.2025.3628913","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2025.3628913","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2484352698","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","issn_l":"2327-4697","issn":["2327-4697","2334-329X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070030239","display_name":"Arunan Sivanathan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5596-8372"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Arunan Sivanathan","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5596-8372","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100770198","display_name":"Deepak Mishra","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3225-6495"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Deepak Mishra","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3225-6495","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032506814","display_name":"Sushmita Ruj","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8698-6709"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sushmita Ruj","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8698-6709","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081141490","display_name":"Natasha Fernandes","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9212-7839"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99043593","display_name":"Macquarie University","ror":"https://ror.org/01sf06y89","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99043593"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Natasha Fernandes","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computing, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9212-7839","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computing, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99043593"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080744092","display_name":"Quan Z. Sheng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3326-4147"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99043593","display_name":"Macquarie University","ror":"https://ror.org/01sf06y89","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99043593"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Quan Z. Sheng","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computing, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3326-4147","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computing, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99043593"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Minh Tran","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7093-6216"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1303474014","display_name":"Defence Science and Technology Group","ror":"https://ror.org/05ddrvt52","country_code":"AU","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014","https://openalex.org/I2801453606","https://openalex.org/I3139952251"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Minh Tran","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Sciences Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","Information Sciences Division, Defence Science & Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7093-6216","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Sciences Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Sciences Division, Defence Science & Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100372676","display_name":"Bin Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5948-5055"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1303474014","display_name":"Defence Science and Technology Group","ror":"https://ror.org/05ddrvt52","country_code":"AU","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014","https://openalex.org/I2801453606","https://openalex.org/I3139952251"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ben Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Sciences Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","Information Sciences Division, Defence Science & Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Sciences Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Sciences Division, Defence Science & Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Daniel Coscia","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1303474014","display_name":"Defence Science and Technology Group","ror":"https://ror.org/05ddrvt52","country_code":"AU","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014","https://openalex.org/I2801453606","https://openalex.org/I3139952251"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Daniel Coscia","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Sciences Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","Information Sciences Division, Defence Science & Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Sciences Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Sciences Division, Defence Science & Technology Group, Edinburgh, SA, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1303474014"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5029634834","display_name":"Gustavo Batista","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3482-8442"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gustavo Batista","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3482-8442","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030677680","display_name":"Hassan Habibi Gharakheili","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9333-7635"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hassan Habibi Gharakaheili","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9333-7635","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":10,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.15322032,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"3256","last_page":"3273"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":0.9753999710083008,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":0.9753999710083008,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.006000000052154064,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10714","display_name":"Software-Defined Networks and 5G","score":0.0015999999595806003,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interpretability","display_name":"Interpretability","score":0.7304999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.6385999917984009},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.5852000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inference","display_name":"Inference","score":0.51419997215271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/traffic-classification","display_name":"Traffic classification","score":0.4869999885559082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/preprocessor","display_name":"Preprocessor","score":0.38029998540878296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/traffic-flow","display_name":"Traffic flow (computer networking)","score":0.3783000111579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-pre-processing","display_name":"Data pre-processing","score":0.36469998955726624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/network-packet","display_name":"Network packet","score":0.3596999943256378}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8008000254631042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781067378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17027399","display_name":"Interpretability","level":2,"score":0.7304999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6735000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.6385999917984009},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5907999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.5852000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776214188","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408386","display_name":"Inference","level":2,"score":0.51419997215271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169988225","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7832484","display_name":"Traffic classification","level":3,"score":0.4869999885559082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.4223000109195709},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34736171","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q918333","display_name":"Preprocessor","level":2,"score":0.38029998540878296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207512268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3074551","display_name":"Traffic flow (computer networking)","level":2,"score":0.3783000111579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10551718","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5227332","display_name":"Data pre-processing","level":2,"score":0.36469998955726624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.36469998955726624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158379750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214111","display_name":"Network packet","level":2,"score":0.3596999943256378},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114809511","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1412924","display_name":"Flow network","level":2,"score":0.33660000562667847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101738243","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786435","display_name":"Autoencoder","level":3,"score":0.33570000529289246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177606310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5674297","display_name":"Adaptability","level":2,"score":0.33500000834465027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136197465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1729295","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","level":2,"score":0.32429999113082886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132964779","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2110223","display_name":"Raw data","level":2,"score":0.31459999084472656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.3034999966621399},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204679922","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q734252","display_name":"Deep packet inspection","level":3,"score":0.288100004196167},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.27889999747276306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176715033","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2080768","display_name":"Traffic generation model","level":2,"score":0.27730000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.27300000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781317605","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7832483","display_name":"Traffic analysis","level":2,"score":0.2662999927997589},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.26489999890327454}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tnse.2025.3628913","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tnse.2025.3628913","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2484352698","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","issn_l":"2327-4697","issn":["2327-4697","2334-329X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335334","display_name":"Defence Science and Technology Group","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":43,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2026905436","https://openalex.org/W2053550965","https://openalex.org/W2090026354","https://openalex.org/W2147118406","https://openalex.org/W2485229854","https://openalex.org/W2516809705","https://openalex.org/W2574448563","https://openalex.org/W2621148797","https://openalex.org/W2750674396","https://openalex.org/W2887149310","https://openalex.org/W2888505697","https://openalex.org/W2895909303","https://openalex.org/W2901312569","https://openalex.org/W2921669466","https://openalex.org/W2930144424","https://openalex.org/W2942231644","https://openalex.org/W2962858109","https://openalex.org/W2970180303","https://openalex.org/W2991507433","https://openalex.org/W3005444580","https://openalex.org/W3015181824","https://openalex.org/W3017377715","https://openalex.org/W3031385726","https://openalex.org/W3090510669","https://openalex.org/W3101981467","https://openalex.org/W3108225283","https://openalex.org/W3131324282","https://openalex.org/W3131386418","https://openalex.org/W4224315052","https://openalex.org/W4281945976","https://openalex.org/W4285120399","https://openalex.org/W4292070752","https://openalex.org/W4296437222","https://openalex.org/W4312963591","https://openalex.org/W4321454754","https://openalex.org/W4382239858","https://openalex.org/W4386998212","https://openalex.org/W4401718417","https://openalex.org/W4401752709","https://openalex.org/W4404866590","https://openalex.org/W4407129833","https://openalex.org/W4408750090","https://openalex.org/W4413757098"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"rapid":[1],"growth":[2],"of":[3,111,146,150,232],"Internet-of-Things":[4],"(IoT)":[5],"devices":[6],"in":[7,69,243],"enterprise":[8],"and":[9,19,44,58,98,130,142,176,203,223,228],"industrial":[10],"networks":[11,85],"presents":[12],"significant":[13,59],"challenges":[14],"for":[15,25,66,183,210],"device":[16],"behavior":[17,119],"analysis":[18],"security.":[20],"Existing":[21],"machine":[22],"learning":[23,79],"models":[24],"IoT":[26,89,117,140,185,212,258],"traffic":[27,90,161,186,191,204,213,259],"classification":[28,145],"face":[29],"limitations.":[30],"Shallow":[31],"models,":[32,51],"relying":[33],"on":[34,82],"manually":[35],"engineered":[36],"features,":[37],"struggle":[38],"to":[39,138,226,252,256],"capture":[40],"complex,":[41],"nonlinear":[42],"patterns":[43],"generalize":[45],"across":[46,194],"diverse":[47,139],"environments.":[48,71],"Deep":[49],"pre-trained":[50],"such":[52],"as":[53,120],"transformers,":[54],"demand":[55],"extensive":[56],"preprocessing":[57],"computational":[60,201],"resources,":[61],"making":[62],"them":[63],"less":[64],"practical":[65],"real-time":[67,77,184,211],"inference":[68,192],"resource-constrained":[70],"This":[72,133],"paper":[73],"proposes":[74],"a":[75,108,121,147,166,240],"lightweight,":[76],"deep":[78],"model":[80],"based":[81],"convolutional":[83,167],"neural":[84,168],"(CNNs)":[86],"that":[87,115,172],"classifies":[88],"using":[91],"structured":[92,156],"flow":[93,112,125],"sequences,":[94],"providing":[95,179],"an":[96,180],"efficient":[97,181],"reliable":[99],"solution.":[100],"Our":[101],"contributions":[102],"are":[103],"threefold:":[104],"(1)":[105],"We":[106,152,164,188,216],"develop":[107],"novel":[109],"structure":[110,135],"data":[113],"sequences":[114],"represents":[116],"network":[118,169],"fixed-size":[122],"matrix,":[123],"capturing":[124],"metadata,":[126],"packet":[127],"timing,":[128],"direction,":[129],"raw":[131],"payloads.":[132],"flexible":[134],"ensures":[136],"adaptability":[137],"environments":[141],"enables":[143],"the":[144,207,230,237],"wide":[148],"variety":[149],"devices.":[151],"publicly":[153],"release":[154],"our":[155],"dataset":[157],"derived":[158],"from":[159],"real":[160,257],"traces.":[162,260],"(2)":[163],"propose":[165],"(CNN)":[170],"architecture":[171],"captures":[173],"both":[174],"intra-flow":[175],"inter-flow":[177],"patterns,":[178],"solution":[182],"classification.":[187],"evaluate":[189],"three":[190],"strategies":[193],"four":[195],"performance":[196],"metrics,":[197],"namely":[198],"accuracy,":[199],"coverage,":[200],"cost,":[202],"selectivity,":[205],"demonstrating":[206],"method's":[208],"effectiveness":[209],"analysis.":[214],"(3)":[215],"incorporate":[217],"interpretability":[218],"techniques,":[219],"specifically":[220],"confidence":[221],"scores":[222],"Shapley":[224],"values,":[225],"assess":[227],"enhance":[229],"trustworthiness":[231],"predictions.":[233],"These":[234],"insights":[235],"refine":[236],"predictions,":[238],"yielding":[239],"4%":[241],"boost":[242],"macro-averaged":[244],"F1-score.":[245],"They":[246],"also":[247],"significantly":[248],"reduce":[249],"high-confidence":[250],"misclassifications":[251],"one-fifth":[253],"when":[254],"applied":[255]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2025-11-05T00:00:00"}