{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7137805936","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tkde.2026.3675012","title":"Learning-Based Sketches for Frequency Estimation in Data Streams Without Ground Truth","display_name":"Learning-Based Sketches for Frequency Estimation in Data Streams Without Ground Truth","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-17","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7137805936","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tkde.2026.3675012"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tkde.2026.3675012","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tkde.2026.3675012","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S30698027","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering","issn_l":"1041-4347","issn":["1041-4347","1558-2191","2326-3865"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101560431","display_name":"Xinyu Yuan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6287-5712"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16365422","display_name":"Hefei University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02czkny70","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xinyu Yuan","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6287-5712","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100763035","display_name":"Yan Qiao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4407-1762"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16365422","display_name":"Hefei University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02czkny70","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yan Qiao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4407-1762","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5129708561","display_name":"Meng Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16365422","display_name":"Hefei University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02czkny70","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Meng Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3553-0813","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067693617","display_name":"Zhenchun Wei","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2751-6501"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16365422","display_name":"Hefei University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02czkny70","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhenchun Wei","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2751-6501","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16365422"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039945850","display_name":"Cuiying Feng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8368-9944"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I150229711","display_name":"University of Electronic Science and Technology of China","ror":"https://ror.org/04qr3zq92","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Cuiying Feng","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information and Software Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8368-9944","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information and Software Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005177639","display_name":"Zonghui Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8212-4618"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I168879160","display_name":"Zhejiang University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05mx0wr29","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I168879160"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zonghui Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8212-4618","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I168879160"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5014698348","display_name":"Wenxing Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9669-4358"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I168879160","display_name":"Zhejiang University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05mx0wr29","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I168879160"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wenzhi Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1674-4701","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I168879160"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.27048746,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"38","issue":"6","first_page":"3722","last_page":"3736"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12761","display_name":"Data Stream Mining Techniques","score":0.7268000245094299,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12761","display_name":"Data Stream Mining Techniques","score":0.7268000245094299,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12205","display_name":"Time Series Analysis and Forecasting","score":0.11710000038146973,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11512","display_name":"Anomaly Detection Techniques and Applications","score":0.019999999552965164,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ground-truth","display_name":"Ground truth","score":0.6161999702453613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-stream-mining","display_name":"Data stream mining","score":0.4993000030517578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/estimation","display_name":"Estimation","score":0.4133000075817108},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/streams","display_name":"STREAMS","score":0.36039999127388},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-modeling","display_name":"Data modeling","score":0.3353999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noisy-data","display_name":"Noisy data","score":0.311599999666214}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7991999983787537},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146849305","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q370766","display_name":"Ground truth","level":2,"score":0.6161999702453613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89198739","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3079880","display_name":"Data stream mining","level":2,"score":0.4993000030517578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.44350001215934753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4302000105381012},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C96250715","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q965330","display_name":"Estimation","level":2,"score":0.4133000075817108},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42090638","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4048907","display_name":"STREAMS","level":2,"score":0.36039999127388},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.3353999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781170535","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30587856","display_name":"Noisy data","level":2,"score":0.311599999666214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.28870001435279846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167928553","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1376021","display_name":"Estimation theory","level":2,"score":0.28130000829696655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.27140000462532043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.2702000141143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138827492","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6661985","display_name":"Data processing","level":2,"score":0.2653000056743622},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.257099986076355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106516650","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm design","level":2,"score":0.2565999925136566},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104267543","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208163","display_name":"Signal processing","level":3,"score":0.250900000333786}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tkde.2026.3675012","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tkde.2026.3675012","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S30698027","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering","issn_l":"1041-4347","issn":["1041-4347","1558-2191","2326-3865"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G259584943","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2025C02103","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F8142712028","funder_display_name":"Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3537770290","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62372149","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4365675440","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"U23A20303","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5989457556","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62472140","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7042574214","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62572168","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7500900909","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62302081","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8342793671","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"BigKEOpen2025-04","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321106","funder_display_name":"Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321106","display_name":"Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01mv9t934"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F8142712028","display_name":"Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":28,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2080234606","https://openalex.org/W2097897435","https://openalex.org/W2129131372","https://openalex.org/W2146616964","https://openalex.org/W2439904216","https://openalex.org/W2487095677","https://openalex.org/W2621345043","https://openalex.org/W2834288129","https://openalex.org/W2887192039","https://openalex.org/W2962771342","https://openalex.org/W2967106834","https://openalex.org/W3006383271","https://openalex.org/W3047498084","https://openalex.org/W3108105231","https://openalex.org/W3175189084","https://openalex.org/W3178731179","https://openalex.org/W4206137901","https://openalex.org/W4214521665","https://openalex.org/W4238185522","https://openalex.org/W4249843299","https://openalex.org/W4254937964","https://openalex.org/W4309226102","https://openalex.org/W4321448307","https://openalex.org/W4376619184","https://openalex.org/W4385245566","https://openalex.org/W4385283793","https://openalex.org/W4385834603","https://openalex.org/W7133241065"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Estimating":[0],"the":[1,6,155,199],"frequency":[2,89],"of":[3,150,157,191,209],"items":[4],"on":[5,44,103,161],"high-volume,":[7],"fast":[8],"data":[9,127],"stream":[10],"has":[11],"been":[12],"extensively":[13],"studied":[14],"in":[15],"many":[16],"areas,":[17],"such":[18],"as":[19],"database":[20],"and":[21,112,164,178],"network":[22],"measurement.":[23],"Traditional":[24],"sketches":[25],"provide":[26],"only":[27,72],"coarse":[28],"estimates":[29],"under":[30,181],"strict":[31],"memory":[32,184],"constraints.":[33],"Although":[34],"some":[35],"learning-augmented":[36],"methods":[37,58],"have":[38],"emerged":[39],"recently,":[40],"they":[41],"typically":[42],"rely":[43],"offline":[45],"training":[46,100],"with":[47],"real":[48],"frequencies":[49],"or/and":[50],"labels,":[51],"which":[52,131],"are":[53],"often":[54],"unavailable.":[55],"Moreover,":[56,196],"these":[57,78],"suffer":[59],"from":[60],"slow":[61],"update":[62],"speeds,":[63],"limiting":[64],"their":[65],"suitability":[66],"for":[67,87],"real-time":[68],"processing":[69],"despite":[70],"offering":[71],"marginal":[73],"accuracy":[74,177],"improvements.":[75],"To":[76],"overcome":[77],"challenges,":[79],"we":[80],"propose":[81],"UCL-sketch,":[82,130],"a":[83,114],"practical":[84],"learning-based":[85],"paradigm":[86],"per-key":[88,176],"estimation.":[90],"Our":[91],"design":[92],"introduces":[93],"two":[94],"key":[95],"innovations:":[96],"(i)":[97],"an":[98,138,143,192,205],"online":[99],"mechanism":[101],"based":[102],"equivalent":[104],"learning":[105],"that":[106,140,149,168,190],"requires":[107],"no":[108],"ground":[109],"truth":[110],"(GT),":[111],"(ii)":[113],"highly":[115],"scalable":[116],"architecture":[117],"leveraging":[118],"logically":[119],"structured":[120],"estimation":[121],"buckets":[122],"to":[123,125,137,198],"scale":[124],"real-world":[126,163],"stream.":[128],"The":[129],"utilizes":[132],"compressive":[133],"sensing":[134],"(CS),":[135],"converges":[136],"estimator":[139],"provably":[141],"yields":[142],"error":[144],"bound":[145],"far":[146],"lower":[147],"than":[148],"prior":[151],"works,":[152],"without":[153],"sacrificing":[154],"speed":[156],"processing.":[158],"Extensive":[159],"experiments":[160],"both":[162],"synthetic":[165],"datasets":[166],"demonstrate":[167],"our":[169],"approach":[170],"outperforms":[171],"previously":[172],"proposed":[173],"approaches":[174],"regarding":[175],"distribution.":[179],"Notably,":[180],"extremely":[182],"tight":[183],"budgets,":[185],"its":[186],"quality":[187],"almost":[188],"matches":[189],"(infeasible)":[193],"omniscient":[194],"oracle.":[195],"compared":[197],"existing":[200],"equation-based":[201],"sketch,":[202],"UCL-sketch":[203],"achieves":[204],"average":[206],"decoding":[207],"speedup":[208],"nearly":[210],"500":[211],"times.":[212]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T06:03:25.996018","created_date":"2026-03-18T00:00:00"}