{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7135107451","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2026.3670660","title":"Perception-Failure-Induced Test Scenario Searching via Online Causal Reinforcement Learning","display_name":"Perception-Failure-Induced Test Scenario Searching via Online Causal Reinforcement Learning","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7135107451","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2026.3670660"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2026.3670660","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2026.3670660","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128848147","display_name":"Chi Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chi Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9604-2800","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5113118652","display_name":"Tingting Long","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5510-0090"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tingting Long","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100418326","display_name":"Zhendong Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7082-2478"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhendong Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013585366","display_name":"Linhai Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7785-6913"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Linhai Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128845106","display_name":"Mingwen Bi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I176432857","display_name":"Beijing Wuzi University","ror":"https://ror.org/00bd1d647","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I176432857"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mingwen Bi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of E-Commerce, Beijing Wuzi University, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of E-Commerce, Beijing Wuzi University, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I176432857"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128864547","display_name":"Xingyu Chen","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xingyu Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5226-963X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128801629","display_name":"Yuehu Liu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuehu Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Human-Machine Hybrid Augmented Intelligence, Xi&#x27;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128898806","display_name":"Qing Ye","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210107248","display_name":"Merchants Chongqing Communications Research and Design Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/01jvv7h21","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210107248"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qing Ye","raw_affiliation_strings":["China Merchants Chongqing Communications Technology Research and Design Institute Company Ltd., Chongqing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"China Merchants Chongqing Communications Technology Research and Design Institute Company Ltd., Chongqing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210107248"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128822765","display_name":"Li Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Li Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Automation, BNRist, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9428-1960","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Automation, BNRist, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.28047958,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"27","issue":"6","first_page":"6759","last_page":"6774"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10462","display_name":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics","score":0.19580000638961792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10462","display_name":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics","score":0.19580000638961792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12072","display_name":"Machine Learning and Algorithms","score":0.13910000026226044,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10906","display_name":"AI-based Problem Solving and Planning","score":0.0706000030040741,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.6195999979972839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/test","display_name":"Test (biology)","score":0.5450000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/causal-model","display_name":"Causal model","score":0.29589998722076416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/online-learning","display_name":"Online learning","score":0.25110000371932983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intelligent-transportation-system","display_name":"Intelligent transportation system","score":0.23819999396800995}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6635000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.6195999979972839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5917999744415283},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.5450000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.43309998512268066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11671645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5054567","display_name":"Causal model","level":2,"score":0.29589998722076416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2986087404","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15946010","display_name":"Online learning","level":2,"score":0.25110000371932983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47796450","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q508378","display_name":"Intelligent transportation system","level":2,"score":0.23819999396800995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.23489999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16910744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7705759","display_name":"Test data","level":2,"score":0.23319999873638153}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2026.3670660","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2026.3670660","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2360565563","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"BWUISS00","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322237","funder_display_name":"Institute of Environmental Science and Research"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G410598710","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62573339","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6384354423","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62202370","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7833476154","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62441615","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8180423952","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62125305","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322237","display_name":"Institute of Environmental Science and Research","ror":"https://ror.org/0405trq15"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":38,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2122073339","https://openalex.org/W2525936901","https://openalex.org/W2553303224","https://openalex.org/W2750631532","https://openalex.org/W2755725656","https://openalex.org/W2775952356","https://openalex.org/W2792390244","https://openalex.org/W2883944792","https://openalex.org/W2891056855","https://openalex.org/W2891698387","https://openalex.org/W2901436714","https://openalex.org/W2904118126","https://openalex.org/W2904929882","https://openalex.org/W2962702177","https://openalex.org/W2963184890","https://openalex.org/W2963351448","https://openalex.org/W2963657083","https://openalex.org/W2970530432","https://openalex.org/W2970679500","https://openalex.org/W2970752013","https://openalex.org/W2970756023","https://openalex.org/W2979818351","https://openalex.org/W2990761920","https://openalex.org/W3022552131","https://openalex.org/W3082897186","https://openalex.org/W3115568396","https://openalex.org/W3120093013","https://openalex.org/W3138145312","https://openalex.org/W3152731489","https://openalex.org/W3181350748","https://openalex.org/W4312241507","https://openalex.org/W4312406013","https://openalex.org/W4312730708","https://openalex.org/W4313270240","https://openalex.org/W4387623867","https://openalex.org/W4389987619","https://openalex.org/W4408696426","https://openalex.org/W7133188689"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Despite":[0],"compliance":[1],"with":[2,121],"safety":[3],"standards":[4],"such":[5,165],"as":[6,166],"ISO":[7],"26262,":[8],"the":[9,48,137,142,159],"perception":[10,36,55,87,100],"systems":[11],"of":[12,141],"autonomous":[13],"vehicles":[14],"still":[15],"face":[16],"numerous":[17],"challenges":[18],"during":[19],"real-world":[20],"operation.":[21],"In":[22],"this":[23],"work,":[24],"we":[25,65,157],"propose":[26,66],"a":[27,107,146],"framework":[28,73],"to":[29,39,59,94,99,110,126],"identify":[30,95],"safety-critical":[31],"scenarios":[32,97],"specifically":[33],"induced":[34],"by":[35],"failures,":[37,101],"aiming":[38],"support":[40],"more":[41],"targeted":[42],"and":[43,79,86,139,168],"effective":[44,174],"scenario-based":[45],"testing.":[46],"Importantly,":[47],"key":[49],"challenge":[50],"lies":[51],"in":[52,106,149,175],"disentangling":[53],"whether":[54],"failures":[56],"directly":[57],"lead":[58],"critical":[60],"outcomes.":[61],"To":[62,114],"address":[63],"this,":[64],"an":[67,91,117],"Online":[68],"Causal":[69],"Reinforcement":[70],"Searching":[71],"(OCRS)":[72],"that":[74,171],"simultaneously":[75],"performs":[76],"scenario":[77,119],"search":[78],"causal":[80,112],"reasoning.":[81],"Focusing":[82],"on":[83],"visual":[84],"unawareness":[85],"degradation,":[88],"OCRS":[89,172],"employs":[90],"LSTM-RNN":[92],"controller":[93],"accident-prone":[96],"linked":[98],"which":[102],"are":[103],"then":[104],"verified":[105],"counterfactual":[108],"world":[109],"determine":[111],"responsibility.":[113],"improve":[115],"efficiency,":[116],"online":[118],"classifier":[120],"passive-aggressive":[122],"updates":[123],"is":[124],"introduced":[125],"dynamically":[127],"filter":[128],"out":[129],"non-critical":[130],"cases.":[131,155],"The":[132],"experimental":[133],"results":[134],"demonstrate":[135],"both":[136],"effectiveness":[138],"efficiency":[140],"proposed":[143],"approach,":[144],"achieving":[145],"33%":[147],"reduction":[148],"execution":[150],"time":[151],"for":[152],"searchingperception-failure-induced":[153],"corner":[154],"Furthermore,":[156],"evaluate":[158],"method":[160],"under":[161],"adverse":[162],"weather":[163],"conditions":[164],"snow":[167],"fog,":[169],"confirming":[170],"remains":[173],"identifying":[176],"various":[177],"failure":[178],"modes.":[179]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-29T09:40:50.615796","created_date":"2026-03-13T00:00:00"}
