{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4412567043","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2025.3589564","title":"A Constrained Deep Reinforcement Learning Approach for Charging Scheduling of a Battery Swapping Station","display_name":"A Constrained Deep Reinforcement Learning Approach for Charging Scheduling of a Battery Swapping Station","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-07-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4412567043","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2025.3589564"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2025.3589564","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2025.3589564","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5057964768","display_name":"Xingqi Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xingqi Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-9562-5181","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5003952431","display_name":"Fangzhu Ming","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fangzhu Ming","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032341258","display_name":"Jianchen Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4143-9955"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jianchen Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4143-9955","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067277859","display_name":"Zhanbo Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8364-0753"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhanbo Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8364-0753","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100398776","display_name":"Kun Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5464-2661"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kun Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103019101","display_name":"Feng Gao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2971-5929"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Feng Gao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5075845093","display_name":"Xiaohong Guan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8826-0362"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaohong Guan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8826-0362","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Electronic and Information Engineering, and the School of Future Technology, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Intelligent Networks and Network Security, School of Automation Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.15767201,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"26","issue":"11","first_page":"20549","last_page":"20561"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10663","display_name":"Advanced Battery Technologies Research","score":0.9961000084877014,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10663","display_name":"Advanced Battery Technologies Research","score":0.9961000084877014,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10768","display_name":"Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure","score":0.9621999859809875,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10603","display_name":"Smart Grid Energy Management","score":0.948199987411499,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.8331069946289062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scheduling","display_name":"Scheduling (production processes)","score":0.6359067559242249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5527127385139465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/battery","display_name":"Battery (electricity)","score":0.4459350109100342},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.33966270089149475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.3315475881099701},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/operations-management","display_name":"Operations management","score":0.0821184515953064}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.8331069946289062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206729178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2271896","display_name":"Scheduling (production processes)","level":2,"score":0.6359067559242249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5527127385139465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555008776","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q267298","display_name":"Battery (electricity)","level":3,"score":0.4459350109100342},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.33966270089149475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.3315475881099701},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21547014","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1423657","display_name":"Operations management","level":1,"score":0.0821184515953064},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2025.3589564","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2025.3589564","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1919717295","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2023NSFSC1434","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320329861","funder_display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of Sichuan Province"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3270473253","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62192755","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8594832972","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62103319","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320329861","display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of Sichuan Province","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":52,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1498436455","https://openalex.org/W1513271119","https://openalex.org/W1591948339","https://openalex.org/W1982990490","https://openalex.org/W2005647119","https://openalex.org/W2008694596","https://openalex.org/W2027752411","https://openalex.org/W2031674781","https://openalex.org/W2039079854","https://openalex.org/W2079082996","https://openalex.org/W2119717200","https://openalex.org/W2125884948","https://openalex.org/W2172041433","https://openalex.org/W2495099137","https://openalex.org/W2520346345","https://openalex.org/W2740444906","https://openalex.org/W2762432188","https://openalex.org/W2766955960","https://openalex.org/W2784667239","https://openalex.org/W2914044374","https://openalex.org/W2945858560","https://openalex.org/W2967776895","https://openalex.org/W2996896271","https://openalex.org/W3015546056","https://openalex.org/W3016474074","https://openalex.org/W3024714652","https://openalex.org/W3027341120","https://openalex.org/W3037164854","https://openalex.org/W3046117817","https://openalex.org/W3048114902","https://openalex.org/W3083993616","https://openalex.org/W3100789280","https://openalex.org/W3111965818","https://openalex.org/W3185659948","https://openalex.org/W3188390751","https://openalex.org/W3188922109","https://openalex.org/W3211547338","https://openalex.org/W4200016645","https://openalex.org/W4205866998","https://openalex.org/W4226033490","https://openalex.org/W4286638999","https://openalex.org/W4288420729","https://openalex.org/W4309035204","https://openalex.org/W4310018344","https://openalex.org/W4310440611","https://openalex.org/W4312968763","https://openalex.org/W4318957106","https://openalex.org/W4321385062","https://openalex.org/W4322704101","https://openalex.org/W4366149063","https://openalex.org/W4379230382","https://openalex.org/W4390509146"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4306904969","https://openalex.org/W2138720691","https://openalex.org/W4362501864","https://openalex.org/W4380318855","https://openalex.org/W3084456289","https://openalex.org/W2024136090","https://openalex.org/W4391331176","https://openalex.org/W2031695474","https://openalex.org/W2586732548","https://openalex.org/W2964765435"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Battery":[0],"swapping":[1,8],"station":[2],"(BSS)":[3],"can":[4,101,224],"provide":[5,225],"fast":[6],"battery":[7,11,30,69,126,177],"and":[9,24,33,72,97,193,211,233],"flexible":[10],"charging":[12,41,70,92,127,148],"in":[13,27,44,64,228,238],"off-peak":[14],"hours,":[15],"it":[16,76],"is":[17,77,129,157,178],"thus":[18],"beneficial":[19],"for":[20,79],"electric":[21],"vehicles":[22],"(EVs)":[23],"power":[25,34,175],"grid":[26,35],"terms":[28,229],"of":[29,67,160,163,172,176,213,230,235],"life":[31],"extension":[32],"regulation.":[36],"However,":[37],"this":[38],"increases":[39],"the":[40,47,65,80,87,121,125,146,152,169,173,208,214],"scheduling":[42],"complexity":[43],"BSS":[45],"since":[46],"batteries":[48],"are":[49],"not":[50],"necessarily":[51],"required":[52],"to":[53,84,105,120,131,144,206],"be":[54],"charged":[55],"immediately":[56],"as":[57,166],"they":[58],"arrived.":[59],"This":[60],"problem":[61],"becomes":[62],"challenging":[63],"presence":[66],"nonlinear":[68,91,147],"characteristics":[71],"demand/supply":[73],"uncertainties.":[74],"Since":[75],"difficult":[78],"traditional":[81,122],"learning-based":[82],"methods":[83],"deal":[85],"with":[86,200,240],"constraints":[88],"caused":[89],"by":[90,180],"characteristics,":[93],"low":[94],"sampling":[95,209],"efficiency":[96,210],"unstable":[98],"training":[99,215],"issues":[100],"occur.":[102],"In":[103,118,150],"order":[104],"solve":[106],"these":[107],"issues,":[108],"we":[109,137,184],"present":[110],"a":[111,132,158,167,186,195,201],"novel":[112],"deep":[113],"reinforcement":[114],"learning":[115],"(DRL)":[116],"approach.":[117],"contrast":[119],"approaches":[123],"where":[124],"characteristic":[128],"simplified":[130],"constant-current":[133],"or":[134],"constant-power":[135],"process,":[136],"propose":[138,194],"an":[139],"equivalent":[140],"circuit":[141],"model":[142,192],"(ECM)":[143],"capture":[145],"characteristics.":[149],"ECM,":[151],"battery\u2019s":[153],"open-circuit":[154],"voltage":[155],"(OCV)":[156],"function":[159],"its":[161,181],"state":[162],"charge":[164],"(SoC),":[165],"result,":[168],"upper":[170],"bound":[171],"charging/discharging":[174],"influenced":[179],"SoC.":[182],"Then":[183],"construct":[185],"constrained":[187],"Markov":[188],"decision":[189],"process":[190],"(CMDP)":[191],"Beta":[196],"distribution-based":[197],"DRL":[198,243],"approach":[199,223],"continuous":[202],"action":[203],"mask":[204],"(AM)":[205],"improve":[207],"consistency":[212],"process.":[216],"Numerical":[217],"experiments":[218],"show":[219],"that":[220],"our":[221],"new":[222],"better":[226],"results":[227],"operation":[231],"cost":[232],"quality":[234],"service":[236],"(QoS)":[237],"comparison":[239],"other":[241],"state-of-the-art":[242],"methods.":[244]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2025-11-12T23:11:45.498971","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}