{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4399039478","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2024.3400888","title":"STNet: A Space-Time Network Solution for Gridless DOA Estimation With Small Snapshots for Automotive Radar System","display_name":"STNet: A Space-Time Network Solution for Gridless DOA Estimation With Small Snapshots for Automotive Radar System","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-05-27","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4399039478","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2024.3400888"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2024.3400888","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2024.3400888","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111212898","display_name":"Yanjun Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4391768253","display_name":"State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves","ror":"https://ror.org/02q1v5910","country_code":null,"type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4391768253","https://openalex.org/I76569877"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yanjun Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","School of Information Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877","https://openalex.org/I4391768253"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877","https://openalex.org/I4391768253"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100772685","display_name":"Yan Huang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3691-6470"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210155350","display_name":"Purple Mountain Laboratories","ror":"https://ror.org/04zcbk583","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210155350"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4391768253","display_name":"State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves","ror":"https://ror.org/02q1v5910","country_code":null,"type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4391768253","https://openalex.org/I76569877"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yan Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","Purple Mountain Laboratory, Nanjing, China","School of Information Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3691-6470","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877","https://openalex.org/I4391768253"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Purple Mountain Laboratory, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210155350"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877","https://openalex.org/I4391768253"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5020883256","display_name":"Jun Tao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1195-9503"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jun Tao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Underwater Acoustic Signal Processing of Ministry of Education, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","School of Information Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Underwater Acoustic Signal Processing of Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1195-9503","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Underwater Acoustic Signal Processing of Ministry of Education, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Underwater Acoustic Signal Processing of Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060494373","display_name":"Cai Wen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1159-3801"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37802460","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Cai Wen","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Northwest University, XiÃan, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1159-3801","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Northwest University, XiÃan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062152393","display_name":"Yu Han","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3655-3374"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yu Han","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3655-3374","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5052210425","display_name":"Guisheng Liao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5919-0713"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Guisheng Liao","raw_affiliation_strings":["National Key Laboratory of Radar Signal Processing, Xidian University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5919-0713","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Key Laboratory of Radar Signal Processing, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100370996","display_name":"Wei Hong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3478-2744"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210155350","display_name":"Purple Mountain Laboratories","ror":"https://ror.org/04zcbk583","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210155350"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4391768253","display_name":"State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves","ror":"https://ror.org/02q1v5910","country_code":null,"type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4391768253","https://openalex.org/I76569877"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wei Hong","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","Purple Mountain Laboratory, Nanjing, China","School of Information Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3478-2744","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, School of Information Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877","https://openalex.org/I4391768253"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Purple Mountain Laboratory, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210155350"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877","https://openalex.org/I4391768253"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":7,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5111212898"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4391768253","https://openalex.org/I76569877"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":20.0748,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":15,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99018752,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"25","issue":"7","first_page":"7945","last_page":"7962"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10891","display_name":"Radar Systems and Signal Processing","score":0.9958999752998352,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10891","display_name":"Radar Systems and Signal Processing","score":0.9958999752998352,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10711","display_name":"Target Tracking and Data Fusion in Sensor Networks","score":0.9934999942779541,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11038","display_name":"Advanced SAR Imaging Techniques","score":0.9900000095367432,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/radar","display_name":"Radar","score":0.6026730537414551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5615106821060181},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automotive-industry","display_name":"Automotive industry","score":0.5489460229873657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/real-time-computing","display_name":"Real-time computing","score":0.5109345316886902},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/travel-time","display_name":"Travel time","score":0.4447783827781677},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/estimation","display_name":"Estimation","score":0.43395406007766724},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aerospace-engineering","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","score":0.30142492055892944},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.28525257110595703},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.17398732900619507},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/systems-engineering","display_name":"Systems engineering","score":0.15606307983398438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transport-engineering","display_name":"Transport engineering","score":0.09713667631149292}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554190296","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47528","display_name":"Radar","level":2,"score":0.6026730537414551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5615106821060181},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C526921623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190117","display_name":"Automotive industry","level":2,"score":0.5489460229873657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.5109345316886902},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2985733770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1233007","display_name":"Travel time","level":2,"score":0.4447783827781677},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C96250715","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q965330","display_name":"Estimation","level":2,"score":0.43395406007766724},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146978453","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3798668","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","level":1,"score":0.30142492055892944},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.28525257110595703},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.17398732900619507},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.15606307983398438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22212356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q775325","display_name":"Transport engineering","level":1,"score":0.09713667631149292}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2024.3400888","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2024.3400888","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2330856724","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62271138","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6486689234","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"U20B2039","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8671396767","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62271142","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":45,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1521023302","https://openalex.org/W1579000240","https://openalex.org/W1987450470","https://openalex.org/W2028823365","https://openalex.org/W2029566925","https://openalex.org/W2103519107","https://openalex.org/W2110789499","https://openalex.org/W2115141757","https://openalex.org/W2137983211","https://openalex.org/W2138700949","https://openalex.org/W2149755721","https://openalex.org/W2152279006","https://openalex.org/W2153110463","https://openalex.org/W2159513805","https://openalex.org/W2162654459","https://openalex.org/W2162876243","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2513373031","https://openalex.org/W2534518344","https://openalex.org/W2780544323","https://openalex.org/W2796906318","https://openalex.org/W2897361856","https://openalex.org/W2903096411","https://openalex.org/W2904528646","https://openalex.org/W2919115771","https://openalex.org/W2963495494","https://openalex.org/W2978944319","https://openalex.org/W2978977033","https://openalex.org/W2996722594","https://openalex.org/W2997241746","https://openalex.org/W2999711961","https://openalex.org/W3011127909","https://openalex.org/W3035304152","https://openalex.org/W3035482590","https://openalex.org/W3099449105","https://openalex.org/W3102166889","https://openalex.org/W3104690928","https://openalex.org/W3199965690","https://openalex.org/W4210623501","https://openalex.org/W4281654453","https://openalex.org/W4293193223","https://openalex.org/W4388579758","https://openalex.org/W6631190155","https://openalex.org/W6631271211","https://openalex.org/W7075623520"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4382644535","https://openalex.org/W2522768275","https://openalex.org/W2352938035","https://openalex.org/W2351672553","https://openalex.org/W2373392303","https://openalex.org/W2765894405","https://openalex.org/W1884735063","https://openalex.org/W2372668238","https://openalex.org/W2560421750","https://openalex.org/W645600747"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0,108,171],"order":[1],"to":[2,23,41,126,188],"play":[3],"the":[4,55,90,96,100,106,128,149,153,157,206,211,226,233],"key":[5],"role":[6],"of":[7,54,63,92,130,152,169,193,214,219,235],"automotive":[8],"millimeter":[9],"wave":[10],"radar":[11],"in":[12,73,232,246],"intelligent":[13,28],"vehicle":[14],"systems,":[15],"direction-of-arrival":[16],"(DOA)":[17],"estimation":[18,32,81,121,212,240],"is":[19,116],"an":[20],"essential":[21],"problem":[22],"be":[24,71,103],"solved.":[25],"For":[26],"practical":[27,74],"driving":[29],"applications,":[30],"DOA":[31,80,94,120],"requires":[33],"both":[34],"real-time":[35],"performance":[36,230],"and":[37,99,141,156,180,209,242],"high":[38],"accuracy.":[39],"Due":[40],"unique":[42],"advantages,":[43],"deep":[44],"learning":[45],"(DL)":[46],"based":[47],"methods":[48,58],"have":[49],"attracted":[50],"more":[51,203],"attention.":[52],"Most":[53],"existing":[56],"DL-based":[57],"require":[59],"a":[60,67,83,111,123,135,142,216],"large":[61],"number":[62,218],"snapshots,":[64,237],"but":[65],"only":[66],"few":[68],"snapshots":[69],"can":[70],"guaranteed":[72],"applications.":[75],"Moreover,":[76],"they":[77],"usually":[78],"model":[79],"as":[82,122,161,166],"multi-label":[84],"classification":[85],"task.":[86],"The":[87,221],"output":[88],"represents":[89],"position":[91],"signal":[93,155,160],"on":[95],"discrete":[97],"grid,":[98],"resolution":[101],"will":[102],"limited":[104],"by":[105],"grid.":[107],"this":[109],"paper,":[110],"new":[112],"space-time":[113],"Network":[114],"(STNet)":[115],"proposed,":[117],"which":[118],"models":[119],"regression":[124,207],"task":[125],"achieve":[127],"effect":[129,213],"gridless":[131,239],"estimation.":[132],"We":[133],"design":[134],"space":[136],"correlation":[137,144],"extraction":[138,145],"module":[139,146],"(SCEM)":[140],"time":[143],"(TCEM),":[147],"using":[148,215],"covariance":[150],"matrix":[151],"received":[154,159],"original":[158],"inputs":[162],"respectively,":[163],"treat":[164],"them":[165],"different":[167,191],"types":[168],"data.":[170,194],"these":[172],"two":[173,190],"modules,":[174],"skip":[175],"connection":[176],"dense":[177],"blocks":[178],"(SCDBs)":[179],"long":[181],"short-term":[182],"memory":[183],"(LSTM)":[184],"networks":[185],"are":[186,251],"adopted":[187],"process":[189],"forms":[192],"Through":[195],"such":[196],"processing,":[197],"we":[198],"retain":[199],"sufficient":[200],"information,":[201],"obtain":[202],"features":[204],"for":[205],"task,":[208],"ensure":[210],"small":[217,236],"snapshots.":[220],"experimental":[222],"results":[223],"indicate":[224],"that":[225],"STNet":[227],"shows":[228],"obvious":[229],"gain":[231],"case":[234],"achieves":[238],"effect,":[241],"demonstrates":[243],"excellent":[244],"adaptability":[245],"situations":[247],"where":[248],"target":[249],"DOAs":[250],"closely":[252],"positioned.":[253]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-07T13:39:58.223016","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}