{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2911486422","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2019.2892405","title":"A Survey on 3D Object Detection Methods for Autonomous Driving Applications","display_name":"A Survey on 3D Object Detection Methods for Autonomous Driving Applications","publication_year":2019,"publication_date":"2019-01-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2911486422","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2019.2892405","mag":"2911486422"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2019.2892405","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2019.2892405","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008609865","display_name":"Eduardo Arnold","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7896-7252"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Eduardo Arnold","raw_affiliation_strings":["Warwick Manufacturing Group, The University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Warwick Manufacturing Group, The University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5047057664","display_name":"Omar Y. Al-Jarrah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6212-9307"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Omar Y. Al-Jarrah","raw_affiliation_strings":["Warwick Manufacturing Group, The University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Warwick Manufacturing Group, The University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5068530392","display_name":"Mehrdad Dianati","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5119-4499"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mehrdad Dianati","raw_affiliation_strings":["Warwick Manufacturing Group, The University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Warwick Manufacturing Group, The University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071227510","display_name":"Saber Fallah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1298-1040"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I28290843","display_name":"University of Surrey","ror":"https://ror.org/00ks66431","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28290843"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Saber Fallah","raw_affiliation_strings":["Centre for Automotive Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Centre for Automotive Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28290843"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071672383","display_name":"David Oxtoby","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130198913","display_name":"Jaguar Land Rover (United Kingdom)","ror":"https://ror.org/03b66v461","country_code":"GB","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130198913"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"David Oxtoby","raw_affiliation_strings":["Jaguar Land Rover, Ltd., Coventry, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Jaguar Land Rover, Ltd., Coventry, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130198913"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5110562574","display_name":"Alex Mouzakitis","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130198913","display_name":"Jaguar Land Rover (United Kingdom)","ror":"https://ror.org/03b66v461","country_code":"GB","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130198913"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alex Mouzakitis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Jaguar Land Rover, Ltd., Coventry, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Jaguar Land Rover, Ltd., Coventry, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130198913"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5008609865"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":28.7084,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":679,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99720983,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"20","issue":"10","first_page":"3782","last_page":"3795"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10331","display_name":"Video Surveillance and Tracking Methods","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object-detection","display_name":"Object detection","score":0.7435584664344788},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6846920251846313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6736432313919067},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.6382505893707275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/point-cloud","display_name":"Point cloud","score":0.5908243656158447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sensor-fusion","display_name":"Sensor fusion","score":0.5357766151428223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/perception","display_name":"Perception","score":0.5288870334625244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object","display_name":"Object (grammar)","score":0.47882989048957825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dimension","display_name":"Dimension (graph theory)","score":0.47622257471084595},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/monocular-vision","display_name":"Monocular vision","score":0.43569493293762207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/segmentation","display_name":"Segmentation","score":0.27014991641044617}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776151529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3045304","display_name":"Object detection","level":3,"score":0.7435584664344788},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6846920251846313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6736432313919067},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.6382505893707275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C131979681","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1899648","display_name":"Point cloud","level":2,"score":0.5908243656158447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33954974","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486494","display_name":"Sensor fusion","level":2,"score":0.5357766151428223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26760741","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160402","display_name":"Perception","level":2,"score":0.5288870334625244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781238097","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175026","display_name":"Object (grammar)","level":2,"score":0.47882989048957825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33676613","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13415176","display_name":"Dimension (graph theory)","level":2,"score":0.47622257471084595},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158829959","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1640606","display_name":"Monocular vision","level":2,"score":0.43569493293762207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89600930","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1423946","display_name":"Segmentation","level":2,"score":0.27014991641044617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202444582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q837863","display_name":"Pure mathematics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tits.2019.2892405","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2019.2892405","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S144771191","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","issn_l":"1524-9050","issn":["1524-9050","1558-0016"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:wrap.warwick.ac.uk:114314","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400665","display_name":"Warwick Research Archive Portal (University of Warwick)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","host_organization_name":"University of Warwick","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Journal Article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5299999713897705,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/11","display_name":"Sustainable cities and communities"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2919768833","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EP/N01300X/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4806304024","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EP/N01300X/2","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0439y7842"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":77,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W639708223","https://openalex.org/W1536680647","https://openalex.org/W1644641054","https://openalex.org/W1686810756","https://openalex.org/W1920022804","https://openalex.org/W1946609740","https://openalex.org/W2017088761","https://openalex.org/W2031489346","https://openalex.org/W2037938259","https://openalex.org/W2088173505","https://openalex.org/W2089815405","https://openalex.org/W2103157675","https://openalex.org/W2108598243","https://openalex.org/W2125324505","https://openalex.org/W2150066425","https://openalex.org/W2165065922","https://openalex.org/W2184393491","https://openalex.org/W2211722331","https://openalex.org/W2237125440","https://openalex.org/W2279098554","https://openalex.org/W2339186457","https://openalex.org/W2342242867","https://openalex.org/W2397830550","https://openalex.org/W2416791088","https://openalex.org/W2468368736","https://openalex.org/W2486205537","https://openalex.org/W2512944926","https://openalex.org/W2519571209","https://openalex.org/W2555618208","https://openalex.org/W2558294288","https://openalex.org/W2558748708","https://openalex.org/W2559767995","https://openalex.org/W2560544142","https://openalex.org/W2560609797","https://openalex.org/W2565639579","https://openalex.org/W2570343428","https://openalex.org/W2588289902","https://openalex.org/W2589615404","https://openalex.org/W2589930967","https://openalex.org/W2605189827","https://openalex.org/W2613718673","https://openalex.org/W2626967530","https://openalex.org/W2748378127","https://openalex.org/W2766690012","https://openalex.org/W2785053089","https://openalex.org/W2789810439","https://openalex.org/W2791639158","https://openalex.org/W2792919579","https://openalex.org/W2793066252","https://openalex.org/W2796981170","https://openalex.org/W2798902623","https://openalex.org/W2886168685","https://openalex.org/W2962835968","https://openalex.org/W2962867954","https://openalex.org/W2962912109","https://openalex.org/W2963083779","https://openalex.org/W2963121255","https://openalex.org/W2963167203","https://openalex.org/W2963400571","https://openalex.org/W2963403664","https://openalex.org/W2963410012","https://openalex.org/W2963438049","https://openalex.org/W2963721253","https://openalex.org/W2963727135","https://openalex.org/W2963793227","https://openalex.org/W2964062501","https://openalex.org/W2979750740","https://openalex.org/W3098009429","https://openalex.org/W4295719664","https://openalex.org/W4298299490","https://openalex.org/W6620707391","https://openalex.org/W6637373629","https://openalex.org/W6640300118","https://openalex.org/W6660100523","https://openalex.org/W6686211706","https://openalex.org/W6739778489","https://openalex.org/W6745935785"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4389574804","https://openalex.org/W2936725271","https://openalex.org/W3016928466","https://openalex.org/W3150655618","https://openalex.org/W2295788148","https://openalex.org/W1578717197","https://openalex.org/W3108295644","https://openalex.org/W2626737336","https://openalex.org/W2005998065","https://openalex.org/W2562256921"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"An":[0],"autonomous":[1,37,135],"vehicle":[2],"(AV)":[3],"requires":[4],"an":[5,19,141],"accurate":[6],"perception":[7,16,47],"of":[8,18,45,57,110,120,143,180],"its":[9],"surrounding":[10],"environment":[11],"to":[12,114],"operate":[13],"reliably.":[14],"The":[15],"system":[17],"AV,":[20],"which":[21,49,72],"normally":[22],"employs":[23],"machine":[24],"learning":[25],"(e.g.,":[26],"deep":[27],"learning),":[28],"transforms":[29],"sensory":[30],"data":[31],"into":[32,168],"semantic":[33],"information":[34],"that":[35,97],"enables":[36],"driving.":[38],"Object":[39],"detection":[40,61,91,108,131,146],"is":[41,73,124],"a":[42,94],"fundamental":[43],"function":[44],"this":[46,123],"system,":[48],"has":[50],"been":[51],"tackled":[52],"by":[53],"several":[54],"works,":[55],"most":[56],"them":[58],"using":[59],"2D":[60,65],"methods.":[62,174],"However,":[63],"the":[64,88,107,118,125,161,178,181,186],"methods":[66,92,112,132,147],"do":[67],"not":[68],"provide":[69],"depth":[70],"information,":[71],"required":[74],"for":[75,134],"driving":[76,136],"tasks,":[77],"such":[78,111],"as":[79],"path":[80],"planning,":[81],"collision":[82],"avoidance,":[83],"and":[84,103,148,152,159,172,184,189],"so":[85],"on.":[86],"Alternatively,":[87],"3D":[89,129,144],"object":[90,130,145],"introduce":[93],"third":[95],"dimension":[96],"reveals":[98],"more":[99],"detailed":[100],"object's":[101],"size":[102],"location":[104],"information.":[105],"Nonetheless,":[106],"accuracy":[109],"needs":[113],"be":[115],"improved.":[116],"To":[117],"best":[119],"our":[121],"knowledge,":[122],"first":[126],"survey":[127],"on":[128,165],"used":[133,150],"applications.":[137],"This":[138],"paper":[139],"presents":[140],"overview":[142],"prevalently":[149],"sensors":[151,166],"datasets":[153],"in":[154],"AVs.":[155],"It":[156],"then":[157,176],"discusses":[158],"categorizes":[160],"recent":[162],"works":[163,183],"based":[164],"modalities":[167],"monocular,":[169],"point":[170],"cloud-based,":[171],"fusion":[173],"We":[175],"summarize":[177],"results":[179],"surveyed":[182],"identify":[185],"research":[187,191],"gaps":[188],"future":[190],"directions.":[192]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":104},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":141},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":140},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":119},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":86},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":63},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":13}],"updated_date":"2026-04-10T15:06:20.359241","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
