{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2153339042","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tit.1956.1056815","title":"Human memory and the storage of information","display_name":"Human memory and the storage of information","publication_year":1956,"publication_date":"1956-09-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2153339042","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tit.1956.1056815","mag":"2153339042"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tit.1956.1056815","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tit.1956.1056815","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4502562","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Theory","issn_l":"0018-9448","issn":["0018-9448","1557-9654"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Theory","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111584003","display_name":"George Miller","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2801851002","display_name":"Harvard University Press","ror":"https://ror.org/006v7bf86","country_code":"US","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984","https://openalex.org/I2801851002"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"G. Miller","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2801851002"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5111584003"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2801851002"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":5.4476,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":228,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95625547,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"2","issue":"3","first_page":"129","last_page":"137"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14394","display_name":"Cognitive Science and Education Research","score":0.7652000188827515,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14394","display_name":"Cognitive Science and Education Research","score":0.7652000188827515,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10918","display_name":"Memory Processes and Influences","score":0.7565000057220459,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10286","display_name":"Information Retrieval and Search Behavior","score":0.6680999994277954,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/memorization","display_name":"Memorization","score":0.8302412033081055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/redundancy","display_name":"Redundancy (engineering)","score":0.7464982867240906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variety","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","score":0.6913130283355713},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6820728778839111},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/limiting","display_name":"Limiting","score":0.5442436337471008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/symbol","display_name":"Symbol (formal)","score":0.5172505974769592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-theory","display_name":"Information theory","score":0.43852946162223816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reduction","display_name":"Reduction (mathematics)","score":0.43124544620513916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/arithmetic","display_name":"Arithmetic","score":0.40638405084609985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/theoretical-computer-science","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","score":0.3658513128757477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.29436275362968445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.21122434735298157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.16979146003723145},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-psychology","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","score":0.1599477231502533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.09614726901054382}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C30038468","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4354775","display_name":"Memorization","level":2,"score":0.8302412033081055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152124472","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1204361","display_name":"Redundancy (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.7464982867240906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136197465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1729295","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","level":2,"score":0.6913130283355713},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6820728778839111},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188198153","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1613840","display_name":"Limiting","level":2,"score":0.5442436337471008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134400042","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2372244","display_name":"Symbol (formal)","level":2,"score":0.5172505974769592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622258","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131222","display_name":"Information theory","level":2,"score":0.43852946162223816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111335779","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3454686","display_name":"Reduction (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.43124544620513916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94375191","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11205","display_name":"Arithmetic","level":1,"score":0.40638405084609985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.3658513128757477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.29436275362968445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.21122434735298157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.16979146003723145},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.1599477231502533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.09614726901054382},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78519656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101333","display_name":"Mechanical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tit.1956.1056815","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tit.1956.1056815","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4502562","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Theory","issn_l":"0018-9448","issn":["0018-9448","1557-9654"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Theory","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":16,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1982822393","https://openalex.org/W1984314602","https://openalex.org/W1995875735","https://openalex.org/W2019600788","https://openalex.org/W2065343007","https://openalex.org/W2079145130","https://openalex.org/W2079730890","https://openalex.org/W2093841470","https://openalex.org/W2148355617","https://openalex.org/W2179427518","https://openalex.org/W2313891975","https://openalex.org/W2579555219","https://openalex.org/W2799178166","https://openalex.org/W4239127880","https://openalex.org/W4246406755","https://openalex.org/W4301950967"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4387561393","https://openalex.org/W3163481960","https://openalex.org/W3093895509","https://openalex.org/W280704926","https://openalex.org/W2476068070","https://openalex.org/W4323971310","https://openalex.org/W2893372175","https://openalex.org/W2323394100","https://openalex.org/W1972827106","https://openalex.org/W4283526844"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"amount":[1,69,235,338],"of":[2,16,29,38,48,70,88,126,132,163,166,190,216,236,251,255,261,306,333,339,351],"selective":[3],"information":[4,71,179,237,340],"in":[5,51,63,67,97,119,123,177,186,208,331],"a":[6,175,184,203,209,252,291,344],"message":[7,50,152,218],"can":[8,169,300],"be":[9,155,170],"increased":[10],"either":[11],"by":[12,25],"increasing":[13,26],"the":[14,17,27,30,36,39,46,49,68,85,93,99,109,116,124,133,143,146,150,164,178,187,191,214,217,234,259,276,283,296,307,328,334,337,349],"variety":[15,37,254],"symbols":[18,40,285],"from":[19],"which":[20],"it":[21,222,314],"is":[22,41,115,228,241,278,311,343],"composed":[23],"or":[24,182],"length":[28,47,64,135,189,215],"message.":[31,192],"Psychological":[32],"experiments":[33],"indicate":[34],"that":[35,111,211,336],"far":[42],"less":[43],"important":[44,346],"than":[45],"controlling":[52,348],"what":[53],"human":[54,120,324],"subjects":[55],"are":[56,74,198,326],"able":[57],"to":[58,77,103,108,142,157,224,232,272,317],"remember.":[59,104,160],"Two":[60],"messages":[61,131],"equal":[62],"but":[65,226,258],"differing":[66],"per":[72,180,238,341],"symbol":[73,181,342],"equally":[75,172],"easy":[76],"memorize.":[78],"This":[79],"fact":[80,335],"provides":[81],"an":[82],"opportunity":[83],"for":[84,323],"effective":[86,188],"use":[87,269,305],"recoding":[89],"procedures":[90],"and":[91,145,159,219,294],"reveals":[92],"mental":[94],"economy":[95],"involved":[96],"organizing":[98],"materials":[100],"we":[101,268,281,299],"want":[102],"An":[105],"apparent":[106],"exception":[107],"rule":[110],"length,":[112],"not":[113,199,229],"variety,":[114],"limiting":[117],"factor":[118],"memory":[121,325],"occurs":[122],"case":[125],"redundant":[127,151],"messages.":[128],"If":[129,267,280],"two":[130,196],"same":[134],"differ":[136],"because":[137,313],"one":[138,250],"contains":[139],"redundancy":[140,168,201,310],"familiar":[141,206],"learner":[144],"other":[147],"does":[148],"not,":[149],"will":[153],"usually":[154],"easier":[156,223],"learn":[158],"In":[161],"terms":[162],"theory":[165],"information,":[167],"viewed":[171],"well":[173],"as":[174,183,242],"reduction":[176,185],"Psychologically,":[193],"however,":[194],"these":[195,270],"alternatives":[197],"equivalent;":[200],"permits":[202],"reorganization":[204],"into":[205,286],"sequences":[207],"way":[210],"effectively":[212],"shortens":[213],"so":[220],"makes":[221],"memorize,":[225],"this":[227],"psychologically":[230],"equivalent":[231],"reducing":[233],"symbol.":[239],"It":[240],"if":[243],"each":[244,289],"storage":[245,277],"register":[246],"could":[247],"accept":[248],"any":[249],"tremendous":[253],"alternative":[256],"symbols,":[257,275],"number":[260],"registers":[262,271],"available":[263],"was":[264],"quite":[265],"limited.":[266],"store":[273,295],"binary":[274,284],"inefficient.":[279],"group":[282],"sequences,":[287],"give":[288],"sequence":[290],"different":[292],"name,":[293],"recoded":[297],"names,":[298],"make":[301],"much":[302],"more":[303,319,329],"efficient":[304],"registers.":[308],"Familiar":[309],"helpful":[312],"enables":[315],"us":[316],"recode":[318],"efficiently.":[320],"These":[321],"results":[322],"all":[327],"striking":[330],"view":[332],"critically":[345],"variable":[347],"accuracy":[350],"our":[352],"perceptions.":[353]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-04-20T07:46:08.049788","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
