{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4380079664","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tim.2023.3284930","title":"Scrap Metal Classification Using Magnetic Induction Spectroscopy and Machine Vision","display_name":"Scrap Metal Classification Using Magnetic Induction Spectroscopy and Machine Vision","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4380079664","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tim.2023.3284930"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tim.2023.3284930","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tim.2023.3284930","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S10892749","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","issn_l":"0018-9456","issn":["0018-9456","1557-9662"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5031720014","display_name":"Kane C. Williams","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7064-5395"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","display_name":"University of Manchester","ror":"https://ror.org/027m9bs27","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kane C. Williams","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7064-5395","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024567377","display_name":"Michael O\u2019Toole","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6397-7431"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","display_name":"University of Manchester","ror":"https://ror.org/027m9bs27","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael D. O\u2019Toole","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6397-7431","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009569523","display_name":"Anthony Peyton","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5740-348X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","display_name":"University of Manchester","ror":"https://ror.org/027m9bs27","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Anthony J. Peyton","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5740-348X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5031720014"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.7852,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":22,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.90268663,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"72","issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"11"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12282","display_name":"Mineral Processing and Grinding","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2210","display_name":"Mechanical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12282","display_name":"Mineral Processing and Grinding","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2210","display_name":"Mechanical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12169","display_name":"Non-Destructive Testing Techniques","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2210","display_name":"Mechanical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10572","display_name":"Geophysical and Geoelectrical Methods","score":0.9973999857902527,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1908","display_name":"Geophysics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scrap","display_name":"Scrap","score":0.9591542482376099},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aluminium","display_name":"Aluminium","score":0.5435859560966492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/conductivity","display_name":"Conductivity","score":0.5282458662986755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/alloy","display_name":"Alloy","score":0.5174970626831055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/materials-science","display_name":"Materials science","score":0.5055403709411621},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metal","display_name":"Metal","score":0.4903573989868164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ferrous","display_name":"Ferrous","score":0.43647637963294983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.43081745505332947},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spectroscopy","display_name":"Spectroscopy","score":0.42668503522872925},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/eddy-current","display_name":"Eddy current","score":0.42360496520996094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.4198026657104492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metallurgy","display_name":"Metallurgy","score":0.41764628887176514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.33891403675079346},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.30391639471054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.1843765377998352},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electrical-engineering","display_name":"Electrical engineering","score":0.17468714714050293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chemistry","display_name":"Chemistry","score":0.13904926180839539},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.09285542368888855}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192097918","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q917714","display_name":"Scrap","level":2,"score":0.9591542482376099},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C513153333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q663","display_name":"Aluminium","level":2,"score":0.5435859560966492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C131540310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q907564","display_name":"Conductivity","level":2,"score":0.5282458662986755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780026712","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37756","display_name":"Alloy","level":2,"score":0.5174970626831055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.5055403709411621},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C544153396","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11426","display_name":"Metal","level":2,"score":0.4903573989868164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775832776","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65122087","display_name":"Ferrous","level":2,"score":0.43647637963294983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.43081745505332947},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32891209","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483666","display_name":"Spectroscopy","level":2,"score":0.42668503522872925},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C131357438","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208598","display_name":"Eddy current","level":2,"score":0.42360496520996094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.4198026657104492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C191897082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11467","display_name":"Metallurgy","level":1,"score":0.41764628887176514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.33891403675079346},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.30391639471054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.1843765377998352},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.17468714714050293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.13904926180839539},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.09285542368888855},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C147789679","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11372","display_name":"Physical chemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tim.2023.3284930","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tim.2023.3284930","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S10892749","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","issn_l":"0018-9456","issn":["0018-9456","1557-9662"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.atira.dk:publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","pdf_url":"https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400662","display_name":"Research Explorer (The University of Manchester)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","host_organization_name":"University of Manchester","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Williams, K, O'Toole, M & Peyton, A 2023, 'Scrap metal classification using magnetic induction spectroscopy and machine vision', IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement , vol. 72, 2520211. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2023.3284930","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.atira.dk:publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400662","display_name":"Research Explorer (The University of Manchester)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","host_organization_name":"University of Manchester","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":""}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.atira.dk:publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","pdf_url":"https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/d928978a-2aaf-4da0-bc64-443d0440da75","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400662","display_name":"Research Explorer (The University of Manchester)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","host_organization_name":"University of Manchester","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Williams, K, O'Toole, M & Peyton, A 2023, 'Scrap metal classification using magnetic induction spectroscopy and machine vision', IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement , vol. 72, 2520211. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2023.3284930","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.44999998807907104,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1562845300","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"P122584","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2178287788","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EP/W021013/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G534064399","display_name":"The Metal-ID separation system: A new approach to recovering non-ferrous metals using multi-frequency metal-detection and machine learning.","funder_award_id":"72207","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335087","funder_display_name":"Innovate UK"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6384674351","display_name":"Realising Advanced Sensor Technology for Enhanced Recovery of Metal Scrap (RASTER)","funder_award_id":"EP/W021013/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0439y7842"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335087","display_name":"Innovate UK","ror":"https://ror.org/05ar5fy68"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4380079664.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":38,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1979097732","https://openalex.org/W2011993785","https://openalex.org/W2041295836","https://openalex.org/W2051915544","https://openalex.org/W2101234009","https://openalex.org/W2105132202","https://openalex.org/W2133638857","https://openalex.org/W2146445262","https://openalex.org/W2153635508","https://openalex.org/W2158659101","https://openalex.org/W2171086138","https://openalex.org/W2244506935","https://openalex.org/W2408699194","https://openalex.org/W2463015727","https://openalex.org/W2522127752","https://openalex.org/W2612784382","https://openalex.org/W2613823619","https://openalex.org/W2776549958","https://openalex.org/W2803659526","https://openalex.org/W2912456007","https://openalex.org/W2913119535","https://openalex.org/W2914997544","https://openalex.org/W2944101848","https://openalex.org/W2964441970","https://openalex.org/W2965331753","https://openalex.org/W2973909224","https://openalex.org/W2982912960","https://openalex.org/W3122915052","https://openalex.org/W3125509312","https://openalex.org/W3136937830","https://openalex.org/W3152567630","https://openalex.org/W3164791059","https://openalex.org/W3166975074","https://openalex.org/W4297804462","https://openalex.org/W4298079694","https://openalex.org/W4300936546","https://openalex.org/W6675354045","https://openalex.org/W6803376173"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2520165268","https://openalex.org/W2370781105","https://openalex.org/W2162526451","https://openalex.org/W2512008118","https://openalex.org/W3022945664","https://openalex.org/W4386435900","https://openalex.org/W2357572353","https://openalex.org/W4240135517","https://openalex.org/W2377250750","https://openalex.org/W2107211308"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,176,198],"need":[1],"to":[2,48,58,83,89,94,113,135,171,194],"recover":[3],"and":[4,24,138,159,167,210,230],"recycle":[5],"material":[6],"towards":[7],"building":[8],"a":[9,14,50,55,69,130],"circular":[10],"economy":[11],"is":[12,81],"increasingly":[13],"global":[15],"imperative.":[16],"Non-ferrous":[17],"metals":[18,117],"in":[19,205],"particular":[20],"are":[21,125],"highly":[22],"recyclable":[23,40],"can":[25,86,156],"be":[26,87],"extracted":[27],"using":[28],"processes":[29],"such":[30],"as":[31],"eddy":[32],"current":[33],"separation.":[34],"However,":[35],"their":[36],"further":[37],"separation":[38],"into":[39],"groups":[41,166],"based":[42],"on":[43],"metal":[44,70,149,165],"or":[45],"alloy":[46],"continues":[47],"pose":[49],"challenge.":[51],"Recently,":[52],"we":[53,100,223],"proposed":[54],"new":[56],"technique":[57],"discriminate":[59],"between":[60],"non-ferrous":[61,115],"metals:":[62],"Magnetic":[63],"induction":[64],"spectroscopy":[65],"(MIS)":[66],"measures":[67],"how":[68],"fragment":[71,92],"scatters":[72],"an":[73],"excitation":[74],"magnetic":[75],"field":[76],"over":[77,129],"different":[78],"frequencies.":[79],"MIS":[80,109,128,143,154],"related":[82],"conductivity,":[84],"which":[85],"used":[88],"classify":[90,114],"the":[91,103,106,140,148,179,184,190,218,237],"according":[93],"this":[95,98,206],"property.":[96],"In":[97],"paper,":[99],"demonstrate":[101],"for":[102,163,173],"first":[104],"time":[105],"use":[107],"of":[108,142,147,186,200],"with":[110,144],"machine":[111,219,233],"learning":[112,220],"scrap":[116],"drawn":[118],"from":[119,132],"commercial":[120],"waste":[121,168,181],"streams.":[122],"Two":[123],"approaches":[124],"explored:":[126],"(1)":[127],"bandwidth":[131],"3":[133],"kHz":[134],"90":[136],"kHz,":[137],"(2)":[139],"combination":[141],"physical":[145],"colour":[146,201],"samples.":[150],"We":[151],"show":[152],"that":[153,225],"alone":[155],"obtain":[157],"purity":[158,209],"recovery":[160,211],"rates":[161,212],">80%":[162],"most":[164],"streams,":[169],"rising":[170],">93%":[172],"stainless":[174],"steel.":[175],"exception":[177],"was":[178],"Zorba":[180],"stream":[182],"where":[183],"mix":[185],"aluminium":[187],"alloys":[188],"within":[189],"sample":[191],"set":[192],"led":[193],"poor":[195],"conductivity":[196],"contrasts.":[197],"introduction":[199],"substantially":[202],"improved":[203],"results":[204],"case,":[207],"increasing":[208],"by":[213],"20-35":[214],"percentage":[215],"points.":[216],"Of":[217],"models":[221],"tested,":[222],"found":[224],"random":[226],"forest,":[227],"extra":[228],"trees":[229],"support":[231],"vector":[232],"algorithms":[234],"consistently":[235],"achieved":[236],"highest":[238],"performance.":[239]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}