{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4412030567","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tii.2025.3582394","title":"Frequency-Domain Anomaly Detection for Encrypted Traffic in Industrial Control Systems","display_name":"Frequency-Domain Anomaly Detection for Encrypted Traffic in Industrial Control Systems","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-07-04","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4412030567","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tii.2025.3582394"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tii.2025.3582394","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tii.2025.3582394","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S184777250","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics","issn_l":"1551-3203","issn":["1551-3203","1941-0050"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102825275","display_name":"Zhangfa Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3009-9661"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Zhangfa Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electronic Information, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3009-9661","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electronic Information, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100395256","display_name":"Huifang Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7634-5839"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Huifang Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electronic Information, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7634-5839","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electronic Information, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009136223","display_name":"Yi Hua","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0660-7826"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yi Hua","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0660-7826","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027558961","display_name":"Nguyen H. Tran","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7323-9213"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I129604602","display_name":"The University of Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/0384j8v12","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I129604602"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nguyen H. Tran","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7323-9213","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I129604602"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071986802","display_name":"Hongping Gan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4853-5077"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hongping Gan","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Software, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4853-5077","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Software, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5102825275"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.188,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.88191064,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"21","issue":"10","first_page":"7859","last_page":"7869"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9937999844551086,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9937999844551086,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9787999987602234,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9646999835968018,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.6774227619171143},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/frequency-domain","display_name":"Frequency domain","score":0.5942169427871704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/anomaly-detection","display_name":"Anomaly detection","score":0.5930210947990417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5063449144363403},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/industrial-control-system","display_name":"Industrial control system","score":0.4340163767337799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control-system","display_name":"Control system","score":0.4286481738090515},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.3217158913612366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.3006252646446228},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.29594141244888306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.22753939032554626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.18413972854614258},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electrical-engineering","display_name":"Electrical engineering","score":0.1664552092552185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.11902749538421631}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.6774227619171143},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19118579","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786423","display_name":"Frequency domain","level":2,"score":0.5942169427871704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C739882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560506","display_name":"Anomaly detection","level":2,"score":0.5930210947990417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5063449144363403},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40071531","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2513962","display_name":"Industrial control system","level":3,"score":0.4340163767337799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17500928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959968","display_name":"Control system","level":2,"score":0.4286481738090515},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.3217158913612366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.3006252646446228},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.29594141244888306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.22753939032554626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.18413972854614258},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.1664552092552185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.11902749538421631}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tii.2025.3582394","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tii.2025.3582394","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S184777250","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics","issn_l":"1551-3203","issn":["1551-3203","1941-0050"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6716188234","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62471395","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":29,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1995443851","https://openalex.org/W2077488147","https://openalex.org/W2783205364","https://openalex.org/W2789828921","https://openalex.org/W2928560789","https://openalex.org/W2949848919","https://openalex.org/W2950361482","https://openalex.org/W2966738299","https://openalex.org/W3024862066","https://openalex.org/W3081497074","https://openalex.org/W3128465814","https://openalex.org/W3170937175","https://openalex.org/W3173170122","https://openalex.org/W3176085787","https://openalex.org/W3199863078","https://openalex.org/W4210680043","https://openalex.org/W4213258821","https://openalex.org/W4226060502","https://openalex.org/W4293731341","https://openalex.org/W4295438412","https://openalex.org/W4311080744","https://openalex.org/W4312573762","https://openalex.org/W4312835785","https://openalex.org/W4323767232","https://openalex.org/W4385562572","https://openalex.org/W4386243284","https://openalex.org/W4396817460","https://openalex.org/W4397000408","https://openalex.org/W4399767304"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3161403725","https://openalex.org/W4223615774","https://openalex.org/W2486991799","https://openalex.org/W2110796433","https://openalex.org/W3155069932","https://openalex.org/W1993066969","https://openalex.org/W2382834095","https://openalex.org/W2615607975","https://openalex.org/W1986502878","https://openalex.org/W2590964759"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Industrial":[0],"control":[1],"systems":[2],"(ICSs)":[3],"are":[4],"becoming":[5],"increasingly":[6],"interconnected,":[7],"rendering":[8],"them":[9],"susceptible":[10],"to":[11,104],"cyber":[12],"attacks.":[13],"Timely":[14],"detection":[15,36,85,160],"of":[16,30,117,144],"anomalies":[17],"in":[18,44,59,94],"encrypted":[19,91],"data":[20,92,119,123],"flows":[21,93],"is":[22],"crucial":[23],"for":[24,90],"ensuring":[25],"the":[26,126,135,142],"reliability":[27],"and":[28,55,71],"security":[29],"ICS.":[31,95],"Although":[32],"deep":[33],"learning-based":[34],"anomaly":[35,74,84,110,159],"methods":[37,65],"have":[38],"made":[39],"significant":[40],"strides,":[41],"their":[42],"implementation":[43],"point-by-point":[45],"mapping":[46],"paradigms":[47],"often":[48],"necessitates":[49],"a":[50,82,98,114],"tradeoff":[51],"between":[52],"feature":[53,100],"representation":[54],"computational":[56],"efficiency,":[57],"especially":[58],"resource-constrained":[60],"environments.":[61],"In":[62],"addition,":[63],"these":[64,78],"face":[66],"challenges":[67],"with":[68,121],"class":[69,132],"imbalance":[70],"limited":[72],"labeled":[73,118],"data.":[75],"To":[76],"address":[77],"challenges,":[79],"we":[80],"propose":[81],"frequency-domain":[83,99,136],"(FreAD)":[86],"framework":[87],"specifically":[88],"tailored":[89],"FreAD":[96,154],"utilizes":[97],"fusion":[101],"encoding":[102],"module":[103,139],"capture":[105],"global":[106],"temporal":[107],"dependencies.":[108],"An":[109],"scoring":[111],"network":[112],"integrates":[113],"small":[115],"amount":[116],"along":[120],"pseudolabeled":[122],"generated":[124],"from":[125],"modified":[127],"Z-score":[128],"algorithm,":[129],"effectively":[130],"addressing":[131],"imbalance.":[133],"Furthermore,":[134],"deviation":[137],"prior":[138],"can":[140],"alleviate":[141],"contraction":[143],"interclass":[145],"distances":[146],"during":[147],"unsupervised":[148],"training.":[149],"Extensive":[150],"experiments":[151],"demonstrate":[152],"that":[153],"significantly":[155],"surpasses":[156],"other":[157],"state-of-the-art":[158],"algorithms.":[161]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-04-25T08:17:42.794288","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}