{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7143480358","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","title":"Differentially Private Zeroth-Order Methods for Scalable Large Language Model Fine-Tuning","display_name":"Differentially Private Zeroth-Order Methods for Scalable Large Language Model Fine-Tuning","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7143480358","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S61310614","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security","issn_l":"1556-6013","issn":["1556-6013","1556-6021"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Zhihao Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5828-5437"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76130692","display_name":"Zhejiang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00a2xv884","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhihao Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5828-5437","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5041918034","display_name":"Jian Lou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4110-2068"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76130692","display_name":"Zhejiang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00a2xv884","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jian Lou","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4110-2068","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5130920700","display_name":"Wenjie Bao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76130692","display_name":"Zhejiang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00a2xv884","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wenjie Bao","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005443916","display_name":"Yuke Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5780-6898"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76130692","display_name":"Zhejiang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00a2xv884","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuke Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5780-6898","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100392054","display_name":"Wei Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6907-1697"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76130692","display_name":"Zhejiang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00a2xv884","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wenli Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100564870","display_name":"Zhan Qin","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76130692","display_name":"Zhejiang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00a2xv884","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhan Qin","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7872-6969","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5105297718","display_name":"Kui Ren","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1969-2591"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76130692","display_name":"Zhejiang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00a2xv884","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kui Ren","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1969-2591","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Blockchain and Data Security, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76130692"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.40654417,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"21","issue":null,"first_page":"4163","last_page":"4175"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11435","display_name":"Polynomial and algebraic computation","score":0.11190000176429749,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1703","display_name":"Computational Theory and Mathematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11435","display_name":"Polynomial and algebraic computation","score":0.11190000176429749,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1703","display_name":"Computational Theory and Mathematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11612","display_name":"Stochastic Gradient Optimization Techniques","score":0.09459999948740005,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10142","display_name":"Formal Methods in Verification","score":0.07599999755620956,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1703","display_name":"Computational Theory and Mathematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.5339000225067139},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-modeling","display_name":"Data modeling","score":0.43849998712539673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.38589999079704285},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scale","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","score":0.32179999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context-model","display_name":"Context model","score":0.2989000082015991},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-identification","display_name":"Language identification","score":0.28619998693466187}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8679999709129333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.5339000225067139},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.43849998712539673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.39590001106262207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.38589999079704285},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.3684999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.35269999504089355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.3434000015258789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.32179999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C183322885","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17007702","display_name":"Context model","level":3,"score":0.2989000082015991},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C129792486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1050419","display_name":"Language identification","level":3,"score":0.28619998693466187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184337299","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437428","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.2815000116825104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75684735","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858810","display_name":"Big data","level":2,"score":0.2793999910354614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.2770000100135803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3020028006","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9158","display_name":"Electronic mail","level":2,"score":0.2766000032424927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.275299996137619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.25049999356269836}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S61310614","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security","issn_l":"1556-6013","issn":["1556-6013","1556-6021"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2026.3679194","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S61310614","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security","issn_l":"1556-6013","issn":["1556-6013","1556-6021"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1803704698","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62072395","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3935748781","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"U20A20178","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7062936185","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2021YFB3100300","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335777","funder_display_name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335777","display_name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Fine-tuning":[0],"large":[1],"language":[2,157],"models":[3],"(LLMs)":[4],"on":[5,150],"down-stream":[6],"tasks":[7],"has":[8],"become":[9],"a":[10,128],"standard":[11],"approach":[12],"to":[13,96],"adapt":[14],"their":[15],"capabilities.":[16],"However,":[17],"the":[18,41,50,59,70,85,98,105,112,124],"process":[19],"raises":[20],"privacy":[21,135],"concerns":[22],"when":[23],"using":[24],"sensitive":[25],"datasets,":[26],"prompting":[27],"increasing":[28],"interest":[29],"in":[30,162],"differentially":[31],"private":[32],"(DP)":[33],"fine-tuning":[34],"methods.":[35],"While":[36],"existing":[37],"approaches":[38],"build":[39],"upon":[40],"seminal":[42],"work":[43],"of":[44,61,73,164],"DP-SGD,":[45],"they":[46],"are":[47],"constrained":[48],"by":[49,75,127],"inherent":[51],"inefficiency":[52],"bottlenecks.":[53],"In":[54],"this":[55],"paper,":[56],"we":[57,114],"investigate":[58],"potential":[60],"DP":[62,87,101,116],"zeroth-order":[63,81,88,117],"methods":[64,144],"for":[65,141],"LLM":[66],"fine-tuning,":[67],"which":[68,122],"avoids":[69],"scalability":[71,165],"bottleneck":[72],"SGD":[74],"approximating":[76],"gradients":[77],"with":[78],"more":[79],"efficient":[80],"gradients.":[82],"We":[83,137],"propose":[84,115],"stagewise":[86,118],"method":[89,120],"(DP-ZOSO)":[90],"that":[91],"dynamically":[92],"schedules":[93],"key":[94],"hyperparameters":[95],"leverage":[97],"synergy":[99],"between":[100],"random":[102],"perturbation":[103],"and":[104,145,154,166],"gradient":[106],"approximation":[107],"error.":[108],"To":[109],"further":[110],"enhance":[111],"scalability,":[113],"pruning":[119,130],"(DP-ZOPO)":[121],"reduces":[123],"trainable":[125],"parameters":[126],"data-free":[129],"technique":[131],"requiring":[132],"no":[133],"extra":[134],"budget.":[136],"provide":[138],"theoretical":[139],"analysis":[140,149],"both":[142,151],"proposed":[143],"conduct":[146],"extensive":[147],"empirical":[148],"encoder-only":[152],"masked":[153],"decoder-only":[155],"autoregressive":[156],"model,":[158],"achieving":[159],"impressive":[160],"results":[161],"terms":[163],"utility":[167],"across":[168],"diverse":[169],"tasks.":[170]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-28T06:04:28.489925","created_date":"2026-03-31T00:00:00"}
