{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414603278","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tdsc.2025.3615592","title":"Ultimate Encrypted Traffic Feature Engineering: HTTPS Encrypted Traffic Classification Using Restored Application Data Unit Length","display_name":"Ultimate Encrypted Traffic Feature Engineering: HTTPS Encrypted Traffic Classification Using Restored Application Data Unit Length","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-29","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414603278","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tdsc.2025.3615592"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tdsc.2025.3615592","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tdsc.2025.3615592","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S133795288","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing","issn_l":"1545-5971","issn":["1545-5971","1941-0018","2160-9209"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100679784","display_name":"Zihan Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5871-7766"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zihan Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5871-7766","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043707940","display_name":"Guang Cheng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8642-4362"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Guang Cheng","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8642-4362","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030514254","display_name":"Dandan Niu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4028-7774"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dandan Niu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4028-7774","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007591898","display_name":"Yuyu Zhao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8125-7171"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuyu Zhao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8125-7171","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Yuyang Zhou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8626-0468"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuyang Zhou","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8626-0468","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5035096611","display_name":"Shanqing Jiang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7811-3780"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76569877","display_name":"Southeast University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ct4d772","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shanqing Jiang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7811-3780","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76569877"],"apc_list":{"value":2645,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2645},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.249,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.90054778,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":"1","first_page":"1290","last_page":"1307"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9742000102996826,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.968500018119812,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.8704000115394592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/network-packet","display_name":"Network packet","score":0.6082000136375427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.5117999911308289},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/traffic-classification","display_name":"Traffic classification","score":0.4586000144481659},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/protocol","display_name":"Protocol (science)","score":0.4343999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-packet-inspection","display_name":"Deep packet inspection","score":0.3693000078201294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variable","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","score":0.35510000586509705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/decoupling","display_name":"Decoupling (probability)","score":0.33469998836517334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/application-layer","display_name":"Application layer","score":0.3343999981880188}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.8704000115394592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8070999979972839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158379750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214111","display_name":"Network packet","level":2,"score":0.6082000136375427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.538100004196167},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.5117999911308289},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169988225","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7832484","display_name":"Traffic classification","level":3,"score":0.4586000144481659},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780385302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367158","display_name":"Protocol (science)","level":3,"score":0.4343999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.37290000915527344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204679922","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q734252","display_name":"Deep packet inspection","level":3,"score":0.3693000078201294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.36230000853538513},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182365436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50701","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.35510000586509705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205606062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5249645","display_name":"Decoupling (probability)","level":2,"score":0.33469998836517334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190793597","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189768","display_name":"Application layer","level":3,"score":0.3343999981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21853045","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2634565","display_name":"Protocol data unit","level":3,"score":0.3292999863624573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176217482","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860554","display_name":"Metric (unit)","level":2,"score":0.3231000006198883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184685986","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3505167","display_name":"Multiple encryption","level":3,"score":0.3172999918460846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33884865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1254335","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","level":3,"score":0.3098999857902527},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89600930","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1423946","display_name":"Segmentation","level":2,"score":0.3041999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.30239999294281006},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.2980000078678131},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158215988","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4637271","display_name":"40-bit encryption","level":3,"score":0.2948000133037567},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.28619998693466187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779227376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6505497","display_name":"Layer (electronics)","level":2,"score":0.2840000092983246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182590292","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q989632","display_name":"Network security","level":2,"score":0.2775000035762787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C164660894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2037833","display_name":"Piecewise","level":2,"score":0.2750000059604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.27480000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.2694000005722046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C54108766","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q391064","display_name":"Packet loss","level":3,"score":0.2653999924659729},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118930307","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q600590","display_name":"Tuple","level":2,"score":0.25839999318122864}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tdsc.2025.3615592","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tdsc.2025.3615592","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S133795288","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing","issn_l":"1545-5971","issn":["1545-5971","1941-0018","2160-9209"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320439","host_organization_name":"IEEE Computer Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320439","https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IEEE Computer Society","Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3670749079","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62402101","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3946546080","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62172093","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7558634544","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"U22B2025","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":51,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2000756828","https://openalex.org/W2256681573","https://openalex.org/W2343828539","https://openalex.org/W2605422749","https://openalex.org/W2613715541","https://openalex.org/W2743678626","https://openalex.org/W2892381525","https://openalex.org/W2898017895","https://openalex.org/W2901530347","https://openalex.org/W2915004662","https://openalex.org/W2919493784","https://openalex.org/W2949949254","https://openalex.org/W2963403784","https://openalex.org/W2963750397","https://openalex.org/W2965537075","https://openalex.org/W2974442408","https://openalex.org/W2978828483","https://openalex.org/W2979687053","https://openalex.org/W3002972450","https://openalex.org/W3003925524","https://openalex.org/W3017387519","https://openalex.org/W3025787173","https://openalex.org/W3043450011","https://openalex.org/W3048832564","https://openalex.org/W3109491787","https://openalex.org/W3120227884","https://openalex.org/W3127084347","https://openalex.org/W3134125695","https://openalex.org/W3156309235","https://openalex.org/W3166930713","https://openalex.org/W3166942929","https://openalex.org/W3174009192","https://openalex.org/W3176096468","https://openalex.org/W3177145331","https://openalex.org/W3181331547","https://openalex.org/W3188724340","https://openalex.org/W3190219082","https://openalex.org/W3192392107","https://openalex.org/W3202986187","https://openalex.org/W4285292284","https://openalex.org/W4285819445","https://openalex.org/W4294892399","https://openalex.org/W4307020324","https://openalex.org/W4309787070","https://openalex.org/W4313140483","https://openalex.org/W4321380758","https://openalex.org/W4322706638","https://openalex.org/W4385245566","https://openalex.org/W4387448885","https://openalex.org/W4387547059","https://openalex.org/W4394805422"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Over-the-top":[0],"(OTT)":[1],"applications":[2],"mainly":[3],"communicate":[4],"through":[5],"HTTPS,":[6],"the":[7,14,36,40,51,73,92,104,109,134,146,154,159,172,175,181],"most":[8,37],"famous":[9],"encryption":[10,65,106],"protocol":[11,61,107],"family":[12],"on":[13,72],"Internet.":[15],"The":[16],"classification":[17],"of":[18,145,174],"HTTPS":[19],"encrypted":[20],"traffic":[21],"can":[22,162],"effectively":[23],"obtain":[24],"fine-grained":[25],"OTT":[26],"application":[27,74,111],"information":[28],"for":[29],"network":[30,149],"management":[31],"and":[32,64,117],"cyber":[33],"security.":[34],"As":[35],"expressive":[38],"feature,":[39],"side-channel":[41],"length":[42,53,89,96,137,167],"sequence":[43],"is":[44],"widely":[45],"used":[46],"by":[47],"current":[48],"research,":[49],"especially":[50],"packet":[52],"sequence.":[54],"However,":[55,94],"these":[56],"attempts":[57],"ignored":[58],"interferences":[59],"from":[60,101],"piecewise":[62],"decoupling":[63],"covering,":[66],"leading":[67],"to":[68,90,132],"poor":[69],"performance.":[70],"Based":[71],"layer":[75],"feature":[76],"engineering":[77],"theory,":[78],"we":[79,122],"proposed":[80],"a":[81,124],"new":[82],"metric":[83],"called":[84],"Application":[85],"Data":[86],"Unit":[87],"(ADU)":[88],"eliminate":[91],"interferences.":[93],"ADU":[95,136,166],"cannot":[97],"be":[98],"obtained":[99],"directly":[100],"packets":[102],"as":[103],"TLS":[105],"covers":[108],"entire":[110],"layer,":[112],"which":[113],"contains":[114],"an":[115],"intrusive":[116],"variable":[118],"HTTP":[119],"header.":[120],"Hence,":[121],"designed":[123],"Length-Correction":[125],"Multiple":[126],"Regression":[127],"Neural":[128],"Network":[129],"(LCMRNN)":[130],"algorithm":[131],"restore":[133],"real":[135,147],"sequences":[138],"accurately.":[139],"Exhaustive":[140],"experiments":[141],"in":[142,188],"two":[143],"scenarios":[144],"CERNET":[148],"show":[150],"that":[151],"no":[152],"matter":[153],"HTTP-1.1":[155],"or":[156],"HTTP2.0":[157],"protocol,":[158],"LC-MRNN":[160],"model":[161],"achieve":[163],"significantly":[164],"accurate":[165],"restoration.":[168],"In":[169],"classification,":[170],"with":[171,184],"assistance":[173],"LS-LSTM":[176],"classifier,":[177],"our":[178],"method":[179],"outperforms":[180],"state-of-the-art":[182],"methods":[183],"about":[185],"4.2%":[186],"improvement":[187],"F1-score":[189],"(93.52%).":[190]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
