{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414229416","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3609805","title":"HA-BFNN-ICP a Streaming FPGA Architecture for Energy Efficient Real-Time 3D LiDAR Mapping","display_name":"HA-BFNN-ICP a Streaming FPGA Architecture for Energy Efficient Real-Time 3D LiDAR Mapping","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-16","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414229416","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3609805"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tcsi.2025.3609805","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3609805","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S116977442","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers","issn_l":"1549-8328","issn":["1549-8328","1558-0806"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102007991","display_name":"Yueze Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0671-8887"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I125839683","display_name":"Beijing Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01skt4w74","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I125839683","https://openalex.org/I890469752"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yueze Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0671-8887","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125839683"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119268437","display_name":"Yihong Tian","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I125839683","display_name":"Beijing Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01skt4w74","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I125839683","https://openalex.org/I890469752"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yihong Tian","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125839683"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Xiaoxu Shen","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I125839683","display_name":"Beijing Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01skt4w74","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I125839683","https://openalex.org/I890469752"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaoxu Shen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Advanced Technology Research Institute, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, Shandong, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Advanced Technology Research Institute, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, Shandong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125839683"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119630550","display_name":"Guanyu Qian","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3156-7539"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I125839683","display_name":"Beijing Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01skt4w74","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I125839683","https://openalex.org/I890469752"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Guanyu Qian","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3156-7539","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125839683"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101747441","display_name":"Yang Hong-wei","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0967-3941"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I125839683","display_name":"Beijing Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01skt4w74","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I125839683","https://openalex.org/I890469752"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hongwei Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Advanced Technology Research Institute, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, Shandong, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Advanced Technology Research Institute, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, Shandong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125839683"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006826872","display_name":"Xuemei Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4256-5208"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I125839683","display_name":"Beijing Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01skt4w74","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I125839683","https://openalex.org/I890469752"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xuemei Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4256-5208","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125839683"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I125839683"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.30401574,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"73","issue":"2","first_page":"1209","last_page":"1219"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":0.9979000091552734,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":0.9979000091552734,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10531","display_name":"Advanced Vision and Imaging","score":0.9932000041007996,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":0.9902999997138977,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field-programmable-gate-array","display_name":"Field-programmable gate array","score":0.6152999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/efficient-energy-use","display_name":"Efficient energy use","score":0.5996000170707703},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lidar","display_name":"Lidar","score":0.5924999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/point-cloud","display_name":"Point cloud","score":0.5687000155448914},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/speedup","display_name":"Speedup","score":0.5515000224113464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/coprocessor","display_name":"Coprocessor","score":0.5468000173568726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computation","display_name":"Computation","score":0.46709999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ranging","display_name":"Ranging","score":0.4397999942302704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cloud-computing","display_name":"Cloud computing","score":0.4343000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/preprocessor","display_name":"Preprocessor","score":0.4083000123500824}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.805400013923645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42935608","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190411","display_name":"Field-programmable gate array","level":2,"score":0.6152999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2742236","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q924713","display_name":"Efficient energy use","level":2,"score":0.5996000170707703},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51399673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q504027","display_name":"Lidar","level":2,"score":0.5924999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C131979681","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1899648","display_name":"Point cloud","level":2,"score":0.5687000155448914},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C68339613","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1549489","display_name":"Speedup","level":2,"score":0.5515000224113464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86111242","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q859595","display_name":"Coprocessor","level":2,"score":0.5468000173568726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45374587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12525525","display_name":"Computation","level":2,"score":0.46709999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115051666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6522493","display_name":"Ranging","level":2,"score":0.4397999942302704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79974875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483639","display_name":"Cloud computing","level":2,"score":0.4343000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.4223000109195709},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34736171","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q918333","display_name":"Preprocessor","level":2,"score":0.4083000123500824},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21442007","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1027879","display_name":"Graphics","level":2,"score":0.4016000032424927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9390403","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3966","display_name":"Computer hardware","level":1,"score":0.3971000015735626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C173608175","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q232661","display_name":"Parallel computing","level":1,"score":0.382099986076355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13164978","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q600158","display_name":"Hardware acceleration","level":3,"score":0.36640000343322754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780165032","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16869822","display_name":"Energy consumption","level":2,"score":0.35899999737739563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149635348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193040","display_name":"Embedded system","level":1,"score":0.3443000018596649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84211073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117879","display_name":"Floating point","level":2,"score":0.3409999907016754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777904410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397","display_name":"Software","level":2,"score":0.3208000063896179},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138827492","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6661985","display_name":"Data processing","level":2,"score":0.3199999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186370098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442787","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.3116999864578247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106515295","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26806595","display_name":"Parallel processing","level":2,"score":0.3093999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10551718","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5227332","display_name":"Data pre-processing","level":2,"score":0.298799991607666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18945957","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5597193","display_name":"Graphics hardware","level":3,"score":0.29660001397132874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C459310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117801","display_name":"Computational science","level":1,"score":0.28299999237060547},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142962650","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q240838","display_name":"Reconfigurable computing","level":3,"score":0.2816999852657318},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113775141","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q428691","display_name":"Computer engineering","level":1,"score":0.27900001406669617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165064840","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321061","display_name":"Matching (statistics)","level":2,"score":0.2689000070095062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65232700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5656403","display_name":"Hardware architecture","level":3,"score":0.26750001311302185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778119891","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477690","display_name":"CUDA","level":2,"score":0.2632000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779851693","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183484","display_name":"Graphics processing unit","level":2,"score":0.25699999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.2542000114917755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98025372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477538","display_name":"Systems architecture","level":3,"score":0.25200000405311584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77660652","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q150971","display_name":"Computer graphics","level":2,"score":0.25040000677108765}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tcsi.2025.3609805","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3609805","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S116977442","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers","issn_l":"1549-8328","issn":["1549-8328","1558-0806"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7978217940","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"ZR2022MF351","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320336925","funder_display_name":"Shandong Provincial Postdoctoral Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8555673233","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2023CXPT032","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320330214","funder_display_name":"Key Research and Development Program of Hunan Province of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320330214","display_name":"Key Research and Development Program of Hunan Province of China","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320336925","display_name":"Shandong Provincial Postdoctoral Science Foundation","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":45,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1855750123","https://openalex.org/W1963553128","https://openalex.org/W1970216854","https://openalex.org/W1993589255","https://openalex.org/W2010806162","https://openalex.org/W2068763856","https://openalex.org/W2072974923","https://openalex.org/W2084274334","https://openalex.org/W2087431258","https://openalex.org/W2112262632","https://openalex.org/W2143864104","https://openalex.org/W2145178709","https://openalex.org/W2154268702","https://openalex.org/W2154575051","https://openalex.org/W2155604142","https://openalex.org/W2207756065","https://openalex.org/W2274994580","https://openalex.org/W2562871860","https://openalex.org/W2564361441","https://openalex.org/W2566160165","https://openalex.org/W2940446214","https://openalex.org/W2952329201","https://openalex.org/W2953247561","https://openalex.org/W2954312769","https://openalex.org/W3010172551","https://openalex.org/W3015235064","https://openalex.org/W3017515676","https://openalex.org/W3047002475","https://openalex.org/W3120688681","https://openalex.org/W3148983743","https://openalex.org/W3166572531","https://openalex.org/W3169382023","https://openalex.org/W3175093094","https://openalex.org/W3178733939","https://openalex.org/W3206790221","https://openalex.org/W3216184190","https://openalex.org/W4226157514","https://openalex.org/W4226180019","https://openalex.org/W4286373328","https://openalex.org/W4286377498","https://openalex.org/W4293252651","https://openalex.org/W4312692968","https://openalex.org/W4385300879","https://openalex.org/W4402474635","https://openalex.org/W4406223120"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Three-dimensional":[0],"Light":[1],"Detection":[2],"and":[3,17,34,46,136,149,189,232],"Ranging":[4],"(3D":[5],"LiDAR)":[6],"sensors":[7],"are":[8],"widely":[9],"used":[10],"in":[11,56,177,206],"autonomous":[12],"vehicles":[13],"including":[14],"localization,":[15],"sensing,":[16],"mapping.":[18],"However,":[19],"their":[20],"significant":[21],"computational":[22],"requirements":[23],"remains":[24],"a":[25,66,103,118,141],"major":[26],"limitation.":[27],"Although":[28],"high-end":[29],"Graphics":[30],"Processing":[31,36],"Units":[32,37],"(GPUs)":[33],"Central":[35],"(CPUs)":[38],"can":[39],"solve":[40],"the":[41,44,50,110,150,166,214],"aforementioned":[42],"problem,":[43],"cost":[45],"power":[47],"consumption":[48],"hinder":[49],"widespread":[51],"adoption":[52],"of":[53,224],"3-D":[54],"LiDAR":[55,93,111],"commercial":[57],"vehicles.":[58],"To":[59],"overcome":[60],"these":[61],"limitations,":[62],"this":[63],"paper":[64],"presents":[65],"novel":[67],"high-efficiency":[68],"3D":[69,183,235],"mapping":[70,184,236],"method":[71],"that":[72,159],"aims":[73],"to":[74,87,108,197,210,229],"achieve":[75],"faster":[76],"computation":[77,105],"speeds":[78],"than":[79],"CPUs":[80,188],"while":[81,220],"providing":[82],"better":[83],"energy":[84,137],"efficiency":[85,138],"compared":[86,209],"GPUs.":[88,190],"First,":[89],"an":[90],"optimized":[91],"real-time":[92,134,218],"data":[94],"preprocessing":[95],"procedure":[96],"is":[97,100],"proposed,":[98],"which":[99],"based":[101,164],"on":[102,165,186],"fixed-point":[104],"framework.":[106],"Second,":[107],"accelerate":[109],"point":[112,171],"cloud":[113,172],"matching":[114],"process,":[115],"we":[116,131],"introduce":[117],"new":[119],"processing":[120],"architecture":[121,145],"called":[122],"Hardware":[123],"Accelerated":[124],"Brute":[125],"Force":[126],"Nearest":[127],"Neighbor":[128],"(HA-BFNN).":[129],"Third,":[130],"further":[132],"enhance":[133],"performance":[135,219],"by":[139],"proposing":[140],"streaming":[142],"FPGA":[143,193],"accelerator":[144],"for":[146],"both":[147,187],"HA-BFNN":[148],"Iterative":[151],"Closest":[152],"Point":[153],"(ICP)":[154],"algorithm.":[155],"Experimental":[156],"results":[157],"show":[158],"our":[160,192],"custom":[161],"test":[162],"board,":[163],"AMD":[167],"Kintex-7":[168],"chip,":[169],"accelerates":[170],"matching,":[173],"completing":[174],"single-frame":[175],"calculations":[176],"5.76":[178],"ms,":[179],"significantly":[180],"outperforming":[181],"other":[182],"implementations":[185],"Moreover,":[191],"implementation":[194],"achieves":[195],"up":[196],"<inline-formula":[198],"xmlns:mml=\"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML\"":[199],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\">":[200],"<tex-math":[201],"notation=\"LaTeX\">$17.36\\times":[202],"$</tex-math>":[203],"</inline-formula>":[204],"speedup":[205],"execution":[207],"time":[208],"CPU":[211],"implementations.":[212],"Finally,":[213],"proposed":[215],"system":[216],"enables":[217],"consuming":[221],"only":[222],"3.4W":[223],"power,":[225],"maintaining":[226],"accuracy":[227],"comparable":[228],"software":[230],"counterparts":[231],"even":[233],"state-of-the-art":[234],"methods.":[237]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-02-01T03:34:12.195049","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}