{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4408609005","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3550273","title":"A SPAD-Based Hybrid Time-of-Flight Image Sensor With PWM and Non-Linear Spatiotemporal Coincidence","display_name":"A SPAD-Based Hybrid Time-of-Flight Image Sensor With PWM and Non-Linear Spatiotemporal Coincidence","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-03-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4408609005","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3550273"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tcsi.2025.3550273","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3550273","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S116977442","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers","issn_l":"1549-8328","issn":["1549-8328","1558-0806"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100407397","display_name":"Dong Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0368-3017"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dong Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0368-3017","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5017475638","display_name":"Peixuan Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Peixuan Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-6689-0591","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083905619","display_name":"Jin Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9012-5648"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jin Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9012-5648","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019762369","display_name":"Xiayu Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1421-6745"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiayu Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1421-6745","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101551876","display_name":"Rui Ma","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5015-4989"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rui Ma","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5015-4989","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039575274","display_name":"Zhangming Zhu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7764-1928"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhangming Zhu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7764-1928","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, School of Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Key Laboratory of Analog Integrated Circuits, Xidian University, Xi’an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.5627,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.80349479,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"72","issue":"10","first_page":"5610","last_page":"5619"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12153","display_name":"Advanced Optical Sensing Technologies","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3105","display_name":"Instrumentation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12153","display_name":"Advanced Optical Sensing Technologies","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3105","display_name":"Instrumentation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13869","display_name":"Ocular and Laser Science Research","score":0.9729999899864197,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2731","display_name":"Ophthalmology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10977","display_name":"Optical Imaging and Spectroscopy Techniques","score":0.9589999914169312,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/coincidence","display_name":"Coincidence","score":0.6874595284461975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pulse-width-modulation","display_name":"Pulse-width modulation","score":0.5515630841255188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.3978312611579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control-theory","display_name":"Control theory (sociology)","score":0.3895193338394165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electronic-engineering","display_name":"Electronic engineering","score":0.38608938455581665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.368975967168808},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.33899950981140137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.3078702986240387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.22060388326644897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/voltage","display_name":"Voltage","score":0.20130214095115662},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electrical-engineering","display_name":"Electrical engineering","score":0.11842450499534607}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779832538","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2308809","display_name":"Coincidence","level":3,"score":0.6874595284461975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C92746544","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q585184","display_name":"Pulse-width modulation","level":3,"score":0.5515630841255188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3978312611579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47446073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165890","display_name":"Control theory (sociology)","level":3,"score":0.3895193338394165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24326235","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126095","display_name":"Electronic engineering","level":1,"score":0.38608938455581665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.368975967168808},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.33899950981140137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3078702986240387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.22060388326644897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165801399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25428","display_name":"Voltage","level":2,"score":0.20130214095115662},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.11842450499534607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204787440","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188504","display_name":"Alternative medicine","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142724271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7208","display_name":"Pathology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tcsi.2025.3550273","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcsi.2025.3550273","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S116977442","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers","issn_l":"1549-8328","issn":["1549-8328","1558-0806"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1321123734","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2021ZD0114403","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1552572771","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62274182","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2046407458","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2021ZD0114403","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320329860","funder_display_name":"National Science and Technology Major Project"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5562180857","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62204181","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8433157646","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62134005","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320329860","display_name":"National Science and Technology Major Project","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":20,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2058662614","https://openalex.org/W2757655203","https://openalex.org/W2904013483","https://openalex.org/W2906868222","https://openalex.org/W2995558547","https://openalex.org/W3015487861","https://openalex.org/W3088800423","https://openalex.org/W3093840329","https://openalex.org/W3119109959","https://openalex.org/W3135101855","https://openalex.org/W3193698596","https://openalex.org/W4205464024","https://openalex.org/W4220839421","https://openalex.org/W4220916359","https://openalex.org/W4312602360","https://openalex.org/W4391381460","https://openalex.org/W4392251726","https://openalex.org/W4392739474","https://openalex.org/W4392745949","https://openalex.org/W4392776407"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2138100553","https://openalex.org/W3033220593","https://openalex.org/W3029319512","https://openalex.org/W2007743448","https://openalex.org/W3098848373","https://openalex.org/W1990560562","https://openalex.org/W2070733898","https://openalex.org/W4389454697","https://openalex.org/W1014021808","https://openalex.org/W2119125991"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0],"paper":[1],"presents":[2],"an":[3,21],"image":[4,36,204],"sensor":[5,37,205],"system":[6,38],"based":[7,118],"on":[8,26,69,119],"single-photon":[9],"avalanche":[10],"diode":[11],"(SPAD)":[12],"utilizing":[13],"a":[14,27,62,73,112,130,196,214],"hybrid":[15,28,113],"time-of-flight":[16,122,126],"(ToF)":[17],"method,":[18],"which":[19],"achieves":[20],"imaging":[22],"resolution":[23],"of$64\\times":[24],"128$based":[25],"scanning":[29],"system.":[30],"The":[31,81,109,137,177],"primary":[32],"components":[33],"of":[34,94,164,200],"the":[35,60,70,91,95,100,143,150,168,173,181,203],"include":[39],"a$16\\times":[40],"8$SPADs":[41],"array":[42],"fabricated":[43],"using":[44],"130nm":[45],"CMOS":[46],"technology,":[47],"along":[48,128],"with":[49,77,129,213],"128":[50,55],"passive":[51],"quenching":[52],"circuits":[53,58],"and":[54,72,105,124,186],"pulse":[56,79,83],"shaping":[57],"within":[59],"pixels,":[61],"digital":[63],"signal":[64],"processing":[65],"(DSP)":[66],"circuit":[67,76],"implemented":[68],"FPGA,":[71],"laser":[74,82],"driving":[75],"adjustable":[78],"width.":[80],"width":[84],"can":[85,206],"be":[86],"adaptively":[87],"modified":[88],"according":[89],"to":[90,210],"bin":[92],"size":[93],"partial":[96,114],"histogram,":[97],"thereby":[98],"improving":[99],"signal-to-background":[101],"light":[102,198],"ratio":[103],"(SBR)":[104],"reducing":[106],"measurement":[107,175,215],"jitter.":[108],"DSP":[110],"incorporates":[111],"histogram":[115,159],"(HPH)":[116],"algorithm":[117,140,170],"both":[120],"direct":[121],"(DToF)":[123],"indirect":[125],"(IToF),":[127],"non-linear":[131],"spatiotemporal":[132],"coincidence":[133],"detection":[134,189],"(NSCD)":[135],"circuit.":[136],"proposed":[138],"HPH":[139],"significantly":[141,179],"reduces":[142],"storage":[144,165],"resource":[145],"requirements":[146],"for":[147,152],"histograms,":[148],"eliminating":[149],"need":[151],"in-pixel":[153],"time-to-digital":[154],"converter":[155],"(TDC).":[156],"Each":[157],"pixel\u2019s":[158],"requires":[160],"only":[161],"180":[162],"bits":[163],"resource.":[166],"Moreover,":[167],"IToF":[169],"effectively":[171],"enhances":[172],"system\u2019s":[174],"precision.":[176],"NSCD":[178],"improves":[180],"sensor\u2019s":[182],"background":[183,197],"noise":[184],"suppression":[185],"weak":[187],"echo":[188],"capabilities.":[190],"Experimental":[191],"results":[192],"indicate":[193],"that,":[194],"under":[195],"intensity":[199],"60":[201,211],"Klux,":[202],"measure":[207],"distances":[208],"up":[209],"m,":[212],"precision":[216],"less":[217],"than":[218],"1":[219],"cm.":[220]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-29T09:40:50.615796","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}