{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4404101567","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcad.2024.3447468","title":"Backdoor Attacks on Safe Reinforcement Learning-Enabled Cyber\u2013Physical Systems","display_name":"Backdoor Attacks on Safe Reinforcement Learning-Enabled Cyber\u2013Physical Systems","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-11-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4404101567","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcad.2024.3447468"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tcad.2024.3447468","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcad.2024.3447468","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S100835903","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems","issn_l":"0278-0070","issn":["0278-0070","1937-4151"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108999535","display_name":"Shixiong Jiang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-9137-2359"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shixiong Jiang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-9137-2359","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100761835","display_name":"Mengyu Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3532-9506"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mengyu Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3532-9506","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007560139","display_name":"Fanxin Kong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2174-1620"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fanxin Kong","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2174-1620","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.1364,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.79091316,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"43","issue":"11","first_page":"4093","last_page":"4104"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9786999821662903,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9786999821662903,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9218999743461609,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/backdoor","display_name":"Backdoor","score":0.9856244325637817},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.6611176133155823},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.6117093563079834},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cyber-physical-system","display_name":"Cyber-physical system","score":0.5874263644218445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement","display_name":"Reinforcement","score":0.5718998908996582},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5280776023864746},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.3157023787498474},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.2084263265132904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-psychology","display_name":"Social psychology","score":0.10464295744895935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/operating-system","display_name":"Operating system","score":0.07779431343078613}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781045450","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254569","display_name":"Backdoor","level":2,"score":0.9856244325637817},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.6611176133155823},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.6117093563079834},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179768478","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1120057","display_name":"Cyber-physical system","level":2,"score":0.5874263644218445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67203356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321905","display_name":"Reinforcement","level":2,"score":0.5718998908996582},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5280776023864746},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3157023787498474},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.2084263265132904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.10464295744895935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.07779431343078613}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tcad.2024.3447468","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tcad.2024.3447468","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S100835903","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems","issn_l":"0278-0070","issn":["0278-0070","1937-4151"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2108664090","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"CNS-2333980","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":45,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1533557569","https://openalex.org/W1547304883","https://openalex.org/W1983523797","https://openalex.org/W2736601468","https://openalex.org/W2922078643","https://openalex.org/W2941205169","https://openalex.org/W2962755762","https://openalex.org/W2966537673","https://openalex.org/W2972486407","https://openalex.org/W2980897231","https://openalex.org/W2981396729","https://openalex.org/W2985913519","https://openalex.org/W3004091789","https://openalex.org/W3045969662","https://openalex.org/W3103842254","https://openalex.org/W3107337211","https://openalex.org/W3112314931","https://openalex.org/W3116568908","https://openalex.org/W3172611073","https://openalex.org/W3181836960","https://openalex.org/W3192036897","https://openalex.org/W3200885897","https://openalex.org/W3200969900","https://openalex.org/W3201878770","https://openalex.org/W4293024011","https://openalex.org/W4296437512","https://openalex.org/W4323928695","https://openalex.org/W4367060649","https://openalex.org/W4368408208","https://openalex.org/W4382318055","https://openalex.org/W4388512536","https://openalex.org/W4391583783","https://openalex.org/W4391583787","https://openalex.org/W6741002519","https://openalex.org/W6768844577","https://openalex.org/W6772627330","https://openalex.org/W6775422323","https://openalex.org/W6779812412","https://openalex.org/W6785439472","https://openalex.org/W6790543905","https://openalex.org/W6797106545","https://openalex.org/W6802797584","https://openalex.org/W6852074994","https://openalex.org/W6858013149","https://openalex.org/W6858623806"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4320031223","https://openalex.org/W4200629851","https://openalex.org/W4281902577","https://openalex.org/W4309417370","https://openalex.org/W4292107232","https://openalex.org/W3009072493","https://openalex.org/W4386080799","https://openalex.org/W3140988292","https://openalex.org/W4317672133","https://openalex.org/W4401407399"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Safe":[0],"reinforcement":[1],"learning":[2],"(RL)":[3],"aims":[4],"to":[5,21,67,96,106,135,147],"derive":[6],"a":[7,12,64],"control":[8,74],"policy":[9,35],"that":[10,119],"navigates":[11],"safety-critical":[13],"system":[14],"while":[15],"avoiding":[16],"unsafe":[17],"explorations":[18],"and":[19,50,85,90,144,151],"adhering":[20],"safety":[22,136],"constraints.":[23],"While":[24],"safe":[25,59,83],"RL":[26,84],"has":[27],"been":[28,39],"extensively":[29],"studied,":[30],"its":[31],"vulnerabilities":[32],"during":[33],"the":[34,52,72,98,108,149],"training":[36,53],"have":[37],"barely":[38],"explored":[40],"in":[41],"an":[42],"adversarial":[43],"setting.":[44],"This":[45],"article":[46],"bridges":[47],"this":[48],"gap":[49],"investigates":[51],"time":[54],"vulnerability":[55,62],"of":[56,111,153],"formal":[57],"language-guided":[58],"RL.":[60],"Such":[61],"allows":[63],"malicious":[65],"adversary":[66],"inject":[68],"backdoor":[69,80,117],"behavior":[70],"into":[71,88],"learned":[73],"policy.":[75],"First,":[76],"we":[77,101,139],"formally":[78],"define":[79],"attacks":[81],"for":[82],"divide":[86],"them":[87],"active":[89],"passive":[91],"ones":[92],"depending":[93],"on":[94],"whether":[95],"manipulate":[97],"observation.":[99],"Second,":[100],"propose":[102],"two":[103,109],"novel":[104],"algorithms":[105,115],"synthesize":[107],"kinds":[110],"attacks,":[112],"respectively.":[113],"Both":[114],"generate":[116],"behaviors":[118],"may":[120],"go":[121],"unnoticed":[122],"after":[123],"deployment":[124],"but":[125],"can":[126],"be":[127],"triggered":[128],"when":[129],"specific":[130],"states":[131],"are":[132],"reached,":[133],"leading":[134],"violations.":[137],"Finally,":[138],"conduct":[140],"both":[141],"theoretical":[142],"analysis":[143],"extensive":[145],"experiments":[146],"show":[148],"effectiveness":[150],"stealthiness":[152],"our":[154],"methods.":[155]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-06-26T08:34:08.712188","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}