{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4312528275","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3226302","title":"Investigating Black-Box Function Recognition Using Hardware Performance Counters","display_name":"Investigating Black-Box Function Recognition Using Hardware Performance Counters","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-12-02","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4312528275","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3226302"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tc.2022.3226302","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3226302","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157670870","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","issn_l":"0018-9340","issn":["0018-9340","1557-9956","2326-3814"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065644902","display_name":"Carlton Shepherd","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7366-9034"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Carlton Shepherd","raw_affiliation_strings":["Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, U.K","Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, U.K","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5061969846","display_name":"Benjamin Semal","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-4189-5160"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Benjamin Semal","raw_affiliation_strings":["Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, U.K","Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, U.K","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025799420","display_name":"Konstantinos Markantonakis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3975-9033"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Konstantinos Markantonakis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, U.K","Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, U.K","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5065644902"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.3979,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.67883867,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":95},"biblio":{"volume":"72","issue":"7","first_page":"2065","last_page":"2079"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11424","display_name":"Security and Verification in Computing","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11424","display_name":"Security and Verification in Computing","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9980999827384949,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11005","display_name":"Radiation Effects in Electronics","score":0.9925000071525574,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8232007622718811},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/x86","display_name":"x86","score":0.7119048833847046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/benchmarking","display_name":"Benchmarking","score":0.6657669544219971},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hash-function","display_name":"Hash function","score":0.6453570127487183},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/instruction-set","display_name":"Instruction set","score":0.5295083522796631},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.5109049677848816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/black-box","display_name":"Black box","score":0.4915250241756439},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/operating-system","display_name":"Operating system","score":0.450623095035553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/function","display_name":"Function (biology)","score":0.4475909173488617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.4470939040184021},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embedded-system","display_name":"Embedded system","score":0.3964281976222992},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-hardware","display_name":"Computer hardware","score":0.3806402385234833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-architecture","display_name":"Computer architecture","score":0.3671838641166687},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.26008546352386475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software","display_name":"Software","score":0.19143041968345642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.08009552955627441}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8232007622718811},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C170723468","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182933","display_name":"x86","level":3,"score":0.7119048833847046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86251818","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816754","display_name":"Benchmarking","level":2,"score":0.6657669544219971},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99138194","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183427","display_name":"Hash function","level":2,"score":0.6453570127487183},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202491316","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q272683","display_name":"Instruction set","level":2,"score":0.5295083522796631},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.5109049677848816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94966114","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29256","display_name":"Black box","level":2,"score":0.4915250241756439},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.450623095035553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14036430","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3736076","display_name":"Function (biology)","level":2,"score":0.4475909173488617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.4470939040184021},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149635348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193040","display_name":"Embedded system","level":1,"score":0.3964281976222992},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9390403","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3966","display_name":"Computer hardware","level":1,"score":0.3806402385234833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118524514","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173212","display_name":"Computer architecture","level":1,"score":0.3671838641166687},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.26008546352386475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777904410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397","display_name":"Software","level":2,"score":0.19143041968345642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.08009552955627441},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162853370","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39809","display_name":"Marketing","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78458016","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840400","display_name":"Evolutionary biology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tc.2022.3226302","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3226302","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157670870","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","issn_l":"0018-9340","issn":["0018-9340","1557-9956","2326-3814"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/17","score":0.4099999964237213,"display_name":"Partnerships for the goals"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":39,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1495061682","https://openalex.org/W1656664476","https://openalex.org/W1875061881","https://openalex.org/W2087300543","https://openalex.org/W2088503757","https://openalex.org/W2096961019","https://openalex.org/W2119438786","https://openalex.org/W2171929398","https://openalex.org/W2198565857","https://openalex.org/W2296602564","https://openalex.org/W2473598730","https://openalex.org/W2489283796","https://openalex.org/W2516809705","https://openalex.org/W2602229646","https://openalex.org/W2725461839","https://openalex.org/W2807415350","https://openalex.org/W2902578047","https://openalex.org/W2913902912","https://openalex.org/W2917061593","https://openalex.org/W2932551155","https://openalex.org/W2934053005","https://openalex.org/W2951172748","https://openalex.org/W2955756887","https://openalex.org/W2997591727","https://openalex.org/W3006781152","https://openalex.org/W3017093935","https://openalex.org/W3044177607","https://openalex.org/W3083155189","https://openalex.org/W3113714506","https://openalex.org/W3126267383","https://openalex.org/W3166095789","https://openalex.org/W3200676693","https://openalex.org/W4232751114","https://openalex.org/W4236928334","https://openalex.org/W6629652716","https://openalex.org/W6722475138","https://openalex.org/W6736518430","https://openalex.org/W6737947904","https://openalex.org/W6739901113"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2544369712","https://openalex.org/W1972265022","https://openalex.org/W2090939166","https://openalex.org/W4252926748","https://openalex.org/W2439357447","https://openalex.org/W4225987401","https://openalex.org/W2963356946","https://openalex.org/W1832919355","https://openalex.org/W4236526691","https://openalex.org/W1910165386"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,72],"paper":[1],"presents":[2],"new":[3],"methods":[4],"and":[5,22,35,39,61,68,77,80,95,115,166,175],"results":[6],"for":[7,177],"recognising":[8],"black-box":[9],"program":[10],"functions":[11,125],"using":[12,91,110,134],"hardware":[13,56],"performance":[14,146],"counters":[15],"(HPC),":[16],"where":[17],"an":[18],"investigator":[19],"can":[20,107,131],"invoke":[21],"measure":[23],"function":[24],"calls.":[25],"Important":[26],"use":[27],"cases":[28,159],"include":[29],"analysing":[30],"compiled":[31],"libraries,":[32,38],"e.g.":[33,58],"static":[34],"dynamic":[36],"link":[37],"trusted":[40],"execution":[41],"environment":[42],"(TEE)":[43],"applications.":[44],"We":[45],"develop":[46],"a":[47,52],"generic":[48],"approach":[49],"to":[50,64,140],"classify":[51],"comprehensive":[53],"set":[54],"of":[55,85],"events,":[57],"branch":[59],"mis-predictions":[60],"instruction":[62],"retirements,":[63],"recognise":[65],"standard":[66],"benchmarking":[67],"cryptographic":[69,124],"library":[70,117],"functions.":[71],"includes":[73],"various":[74],"signing,":[75],"verification":[76],"hash":[78],"functions,":[79],"ciphers":[81],"in":[82,157],"numerous":[83],"modes":[84],"operation.":[86],"Three":[87],"architectures":[88],"are":[89],"evaluated":[90],"off-the-shelf":[92],"Intel/X86-64,":[93],"ARM,":[94],"RISC-V":[96],"CPUs.":[97],"Next,":[98],"we":[99,120,170],"show":[100],"that":[101,122,142],"several":[102],"known":[103],"CVE-numbered":[104],"OpenSSL":[105],"vulnerabilities":[106],"be":[108,132],"detected":[109],"HPC":[111,137],"differences":[112],"between":[113],"patched":[114],"unpatched":[116],"versions.":[118],"Further,":[119],"demonstrate":[121],"standardised":[123],"within":[126],"ARM":[127],"TrustZone":[128],"TEE":[129,151],"applications":[130],"recognised":[133],"non-secure":[135],"world":[136],"measurements,":[138],"applying":[139],"platforms":[141],"insecurely":[143],"perturb":[144],"the":[145,163],"monitoring":[147],"unit":[148],"(PMU)":[149],"during":[150],"execution.":[152],"High":[153],"accuracy":[154],"was":[155],"achieved":[156],"all":[158],"(86.22\u201399.83%)":[160],"depending":[161],"on":[162],"application,":[164],"architectural,":[165],"compilation":[167],"assumptions.":[168],"Lastly,":[169],"discuss":[171],"mitigations,":[172],"outstanding":[173],"challenges,":[174],"directions":[176],"future":[178],"research.":[179]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
