{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3189794512","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3160357","title":"Malware-on-the-Brain: Illuminating Malware Byte Codes With Images for Malware Classification","display_name":"Malware-on-the-Brain: Illuminating Malware Byte Codes With Images for Malware Classification","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-03-17","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3189794512","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3160357","mag":"3189794512"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/tc.2022.3160357","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3160357","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157670870","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","issn_l":"0018-9340","issn":["0018-9340","1557-9956","2326-3814"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000182057","display_name":"Fangtian Zhong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1125-7472"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I193531525","display_name":"George Washington University","ror":"https://ror.org/00y4zzh67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I193531525"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Fangtian Zhong","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, The George Washington University, Washington DC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, The George Washington University, Washington DC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I193531525"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101430107","display_name":"Zekai Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5564-137X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I193531525","display_name":"George Washington University","ror":"https://ror.org/00y4zzh67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I193531525"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zekai Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, The George Washington University, Washington DC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, The George Washington University, Washington DC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I193531525"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103077343","display_name":"Minghui Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3675-3461"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I80143920","display_name":"Shandong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04gtjhw98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Minghui Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100618995","display_name":"Guoming Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8003-0669"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I80143920","display_name":"Shandong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04gtjhw98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Guoming Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045982340","display_name":"Dongxiao Yu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6835-5981"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I80143920","display_name":"Shandong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04gtjhw98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dongxiao Yu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100692488","display_name":"Xiuzhen Cheng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5912-4647"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I80143920","display_name":"Shandong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04gtjhw98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiuzhen Cheng","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I80143920"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5000182057"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I193531525"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":5.7986,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":44,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97005187,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"72","issue":"2","first_page":"438","last_page":"451"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9702000021934509,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12357","display_name":"Digital Media Forensic Detection","score":0.9404000043869019,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/malware","display_name":"Malware","score":0.9373146295547485},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8493016958236694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptovirology","display_name":"Cryptovirology","score":0.7689089775085449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/malware-analysis","display_name":"Malware analysis","score":0.6310226917266846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/visualization","display_name":"Visualization","score":0.4673972725868225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.46481117606163025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.4640941023826599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/byte","display_name":"Byte","score":0.4558833837509155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.4536520838737488},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.44244804978370667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/operating-system","display_name":"Operating system","score":0.10502365231513977}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C541664917","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14001","display_name":"Malware","level":2,"score":0.9373146295547485},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8493016958236694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84525096","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3506050","display_name":"Cryptovirology","level":3,"score":0.7689089775085449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779395397","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15731404","display_name":"Malware analysis","level":3,"score":0.6310226917266846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36464697","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q451553","display_name":"Visualization","level":2,"score":0.4673972725868225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.46481117606163025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4640941023826599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43364308","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8799","display_name":"Byte","level":2,"score":0.4558833837509155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.4536520838737488},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.44244804978370667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.10502365231513977}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/tc.2022.3160357","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/tc.2022.3160357","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157670870","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","issn_l":"0018-9340","issn":["0018-9340","1557-9956","2326-3814"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":48,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1553801604","https://openalex.org/W1893133781","https://openalex.org/W1966948031","https://openalex.org/W2001412060","https://openalex.org/W2005662348","https://openalex.org/W2010065958","https://openalex.org/W2045140281","https://openalex.org/W2053715745","https://openalex.org/W2126401948","https://openalex.org/W2132874238","https://openalex.org/W2168103835","https://openalex.org/W2275378310","https://openalex.org/W2479486189","https://openalex.org/W2508015754","https://openalex.org/W2571682498","https://openalex.org/W2765653036","https://openalex.org/W2767001890","https://openalex.org/W2781198008","https://openalex.org/W2796394805","https://openalex.org/W2811511039","https://openalex.org/W2888848241","https://openalex.org/W2897024610","https://openalex.org/W2931858311","https://openalex.org/W2936512185","https://openalex.org/W2958631251","https://openalex.org/W2963562762","https://openalex.org/W2979214350","https://openalex.org/W2982355322","https://openalex.org/W2998010923","https://openalex.org/W3003422325","https://openalex.org/W3004280948","https://openalex.org/W3008497156","https://openalex.org/W3008764821","https://openalex.org/W3011968954","https://openalex.org/W3045044533","https://openalex.org/W3158560939","https://openalex.org/W3170118407","https://openalex.org/W3174130612","https://openalex.org/W4285719527","https://openalex.org/W4287608507","https://openalex.org/W6633283055","https://openalex.org/W6638730924","https://openalex.org/W6650535181","https://openalex.org/W6651973105","https://openalex.org/W6760814872","https://openalex.org/W6773062160","https://openalex.org/W6780821239","https://openalex.org/W6840636151"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2469507153","https://openalex.org/W2008790809","https://openalex.org/W2160963033","https://openalex.org/W3022706011","https://openalex.org/W2768892939","https://openalex.org/W4210907385","https://openalex.org/W2249256574","https://openalex.org/W2397240470","https://openalex.org/W4381279634","https://openalex.org/W2065339563"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Malware":[0],"is":[1,63],"a":[2,21,99,123,143,167,186],"piece":[3],"of":[4,12,23,156,178],"software":[5],"that":[6,76,163],"was":[7],"written":[8],"with":[9,111,185],"the":[10,131,138,154],"intent":[11],"doing":[13],"harm":[14],"to":[15,129,152,190],"data,":[16],"devices,":[17],"or":[18,81],"people.":[19],"Since":[20],"number":[22],"new":[24],"malware":[25,33,61,101,116,134,168],"variants":[26],"can":[27,35,165],"be":[28,36],"generated":[29],"by":[30],"reusing":[31],"codes,":[32],"attacks":[34],"easily":[37],"launched":[38],"and":[39,91,120,146,173],"thus":[40],"become":[41],"common":[42],"in":[43,49,70,87,137],"recent":[44],"years,":[45],"incurring":[46],"huge":[47],"losses":[48],"businesses,":[50],"governments,":[51],"financial":[52],"institutes,":[53],"health":[54],"providers,":[55],"etc.":[56],"To":[57],"defeat":[58],"these":[59],"attacks,":[60],"classification":[62,102],"employed,":[64],"which":[65,106],"plays":[66],"an":[67,149,175],"essential":[68],"role":[69],"anti-virus":[71],"products.":[72],"However,":[73],"existing":[74],"works":[75],"employ":[77],"either":[78],"static":[79],"analysis":[80,83],"dynamic":[82],"have":[84,174],"major":[85],"weaknesses":[86],"complicated":[88],"reverse":[89],"engineering":[90],"time-consuming":[92],"tasks.":[93],"In":[94],"this":[95],"paper,":[96],"we":[97],"propose":[98],"visualized":[100],"framework":[103],"called":[104],"VisMal,":[105],"provides":[107,182],"highly":[108],"efficient":[109],"categorization":[110],"acceptable":[112],"accuracy.":[113],"VisMal":[114,164,181],"converts":[115],"samples":[117],"into":[118],"images":[119],"then":[121],"applies":[122],"contrast-limited":[124],"adaptive":[125],"histogram":[126],"equalization":[127],"algorithm":[128],"enhance":[130],"similarity":[132],"between":[133],"image":[135],"regions":[136],"same":[139],"family.":[140],"We":[141],"provided":[142],"proof-of-concept":[144],"implementation":[145],"carried":[147],"out":[148],"extensive":[150],"evaluation":[151,160],"verify":[153],"performance":[155],"our":[157],"framework.":[158],"The":[159],"results":[161],"indicate":[162],"classify":[166],"sample":[169],"within":[170],"4.0":[171],"ms":[172],"average":[176],"accuracy":[177],"96.0%.":[179],"Moreover,":[180],"security":[183],"engineers":[184],"simple":[187],"visualization":[188],"approach":[189],"further":[191],"validate":[192],"its":[193],"performance.":[194]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}