{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4294982692","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2022.3204972","title":"The Biases of Pre-Trained Language Models: An Empirical Study on Prompt-Based Sentiment Analysis and Emotion Detection","display_name":"The Biases of Pre-Trained Language Models: An Empirical Study on Prompt-Based Sentiment Analysis and Emotion Detection","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-09-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4294982692","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2022.3204972"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/taffc.2022.3204972","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2022.3204972","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S104780363","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing","issn_l":"1949-3045","issn":["1949-3045","2371-9850"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062187850","display_name":"Rui Mao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1082-8755"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Rui Mao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1082-8755","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037327117","display_name":"Qian Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3162-935X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qian Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3162-935X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101407801","display_name":"Kai He","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2639-1532"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kai He","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Xi&#x2019;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;An, Shanxi, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2639-1532","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Xi&#x2019;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x2019;An, Shanxi, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100318285","display_name":"Wei Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8077-7025"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wei Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8077-7025","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100752356","display_name":"Erik Cambria","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3030-1280"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Erik Cambria","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3030-1280","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5062187850"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":29.2308,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":226,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99745035,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":"3","first_page":"1743","last_page":"1753"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10664","display_name":"Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.994700014591217,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7376168966293335},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sentiment-analysis","display_name":"Sentiment analysis","score":0.7316553592681885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.639155387878418},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.6286906003952026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/word","display_name":"Word (group theory)","score":0.6128564476966858},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5599445700645447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/emotion-detection","display_name":"Emotion detection","score":0.5573270320892334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/emotion-classification","display_name":"Emotion classification","score":0.46334677934646606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.44546499848365784},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-research","display_name":"Empirical research","score":0.41941943764686584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.35006654262542725},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/emotion-recognition","display_name":"Emotion recognition","score":0.3274427056312561},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/linguistics","display_name":"Linguistics","score":0.12378552556037903}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7376168966293335},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66402592","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2271421","display_name":"Sentiment analysis","level":2,"score":0.7316553592681885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.639155387878418},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.6286906003952026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90805587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10944557","display_name":"Word (group theory)","level":2,"score":0.6128564476966858},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5599445700645447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2988148770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1339090","display_name":"Emotion detection","level":3,"score":0.5573270320892334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206310091","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q750859","display_name":"Emotion classification","level":2,"score":0.46334677934646606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.44546499848365784},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.41941943764686584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.35006654262542725},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777438025","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1339090","display_name":"Emotion recognition","level":2,"score":0.3274427056312561},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.12378552556037903},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187736073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2920921","display_name":"Management","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/taffc.2022.3204972","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2022.3204972","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S104780363","display_name":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing","issn_l":"1949-3045","issn":["1949-3045","2371-9850"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.7300000190734863,"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":61,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W152725222","https://openalex.org/W1514274094","https://openalex.org/W2066064791","https://openalex.org/W2099813784","https://openalex.org/W2168505588","https://openalex.org/W2250812182","https://openalex.org/W2250879510","https://openalex.org/W2525778437","https://openalex.org/W2583998542","https://openalex.org/W2789511524","https://openalex.org/W2792328264","https://openalex.org/W2798651446","https://openalex.org/W2896457183","https://openalex.org/W2899663614","https://openalex.org/W2925618549","https://openalex.org/W2949442961","https://openalex.org/W2962739339","https://openalex.org/W2963223838","https://openalex.org/W2963250244","https://openalex.org/W2965373594","https://openalex.org/W2971136144","https://openalex.org/W2979826702","https://openalex.org/W2995335514","https://openalex.org/W3034025298","https://openalex.org/W3034323190","https://openalex.org/W3034999214","https://openalex.org/W3094173182","https://openalex.org/W3094412822","https://openalex.org/W3094447155","https://openalex.org/W3096580779","https://openalex.org/W3102687458","https://openalex.org/W3109575922","https://openalex.org/W3128376221","https://openalex.org/W3146034405","https://openalex.org/W3153427360","https://openalex.org/W3172882195","https://openalex.org/W3173686806","https://openalex.org/W3173777717","https://openalex.org/W3174784402","https://openalex.org/W3185341429","https://openalex.org/W3198384869","https://openalex.org/W3202775307","https://openalex.org/W3210828003","https://openalex.org/W4205725149","https://openalex.org/W4283516267","https://openalex.org/W4292779060","https://openalex.org/W6606108360","https://openalex.org/W6607799657","https://openalex.org/W6684149856","https://openalex.org/W6713894373","https://openalex.org/W6727690538","https://openalex.org/W6739901393","https://openalex.org/W6753568494","https://openalex.org/W6755977528","https://openalex.org/W6763701032","https://openalex.org/W6766673545","https://openalex.org/W6768021236","https://openalex.org/W6771395532","https://openalex.org/W6778883912","https://openalex.org/W6780226713","https://openalex.org/W6792956150"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4321608592","https://openalex.org/W2336827033","https://openalex.org/W2922915988","https://openalex.org/W2505228240","https://openalex.org/W4319318901","https://openalex.org/W4389296211","https://openalex.org/W4319430321","https://openalex.org/W2787157782","https://openalex.org/W1876223856","https://openalex.org/W2086792878"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Thanks":[0],"to":[1,51,93,114,138],"the":[2,38,53,74,94,116,139,152],"breakthrough":[3],"of":[4,41,76,96,118,141,155],"large-scale":[5],"pre-trained":[6],"language":[7,30,43],"model":[8],"(PLM)":[9],"technology,":[10],"prompt-based":[11,99,108],"classification":[12],"tasks,":[13],"e.g.,":[14],"sentiment":[15,109,130],"analysis":[16,110,131],"and":[17,81,98,111,132,149,151],"emotion":[18,112,133,156],"detection,":[19],"have":[20],"raised":[21],"increasing":[22],"attention.":[23],"Such":[24],"tasks":[25,32,135],"are":[26,34,127],"formalized":[27],"as":[28],"masked":[29,54],"prediction":[31],"which":[33],"in":[35,56,129],"line":[36],"with":[37,64,136],"pre-training":[39],"objects":[40],"most":[42],"models.":[44],"Thus,":[45],"one":[46],"can":[47],"use":[48],"a":[49,57,103],"PLM":[50],"infer":[52],"words":[55],"downstream":[58],"task,":[59],"then":[60],"obtaining":[61],"label":[62,142],"predictions":[63],"manually":[65],"defined":[66],"label-word":[67,145],"mapping":[68],"templates.":[69],"Prompt-based":[70],"affective":[71,121],"computing":[72],"takes":[73],"advantages":[75],"both":[77],"neural":[78],"network":[79],"modeling":[80],"explainable":[82],"symbolic":[83],"representations.":[84],"However,":[85],"there":[86],"still":[87],"remain":[88],"many":[89],"unclear":[90],"issues":[91],"related":[92],"mechanisms":[95],"PLMs":[97,119,126],"classification.":[100],"We":[101,123],"conduct":[102],"systematic":[104],"empirical":[105],"study":[106,115],"on":[107],"detection":[113,134],"biases":[117],"towards":[120],"computing.":[122],"find":[124],"that":[125],"biased":[128],"respect":[137],"number":[140],"classes,":[143],"emotional":[144],"selections,":[146],"prompt":[147],"templates":[148],"positions,":[150],"word":[153],"forms":[154],"lexicons.":[157]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":15},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":64},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":72},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":63},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":12}],"updated_date":"2026-05-05T08:41:31.759640","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
