{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7125969637","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smc58881.2025.11343401","title":"GPS Spoofing Attack Detection in Autonomous Vehicles Using Adaptive DBSCAN","display_name":"GPS Spoofing Attack Detection in Autonomous Vehicles Using Adaptive DBSCAN","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-05","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7125969637","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smc58881.2025.11343401"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/smc58881.2025.11343401","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smc58881.2025.11343401","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2025 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124081269","display_name":"Ahmad Mohammadi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35777872","display_name":"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University","ror":"https://ror.org/02aze4h65","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ahmad Mohammadi","raw_affiliation_strings":["North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5084571605","display_name":"Reza Ahmari","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35777872","display_name":"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University","ror":"https://ror.org/02aze4h65","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Reza Ahmari","raw_affiliation_strings":["North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5093279939","display_name":"Vahid Hemmati","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35777872","display_name":"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University","ror":"https://ror.org/02aze4h65","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vahid Hemmati","raw_affiliation_strings":["North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5116075341","display_name":"Frederick Owusu-Ambrose","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35777872","display_name":"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University","ror":"https://ror.org/02aze4h65","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Frederick Owusu-Ambrose","raw_affiliation_strings":["North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Mahmoud Nabil Mahmoud","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17301866","display_name":"University of Alabama","ror":"https://ror.org/03xrrjk67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17301866"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mahmoud Nabil Mahmoud","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Alabama,Tuscaloosa,AL,USA,35487"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Alabama,Tuscaloosa,AL,USA,35487","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17301866"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5088897776","display_name":"Parham M. Kebria","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7049-928X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35777872","display_name":"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University","ror":"https://ror.org/02aze4h65","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Parham Kebria","raw_affiliation_strings":["North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054416654","display_name":"Abdollah Homaifar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1179-3221"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35777872","display_name":"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University","ror":"https://ror.org/02aze4h65","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Abdollah Homaifar","raw_affiliation_strings":["North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"North Carolina A&T State University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Greensboro,NC,USA,27411","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124025627","display_name":"Mehrdad Saif","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74413500","display_name":"University of Windsor","ror":"https://ror.org/01gw3d370","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74413500"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mehrdad Saif","raw_affiliation_strings":["Windsor University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Windsor,Canada,N9B 3P4"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Windsor University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Windsor,Canada,N9B 3P4","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74413500"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":8,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5124081269"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35777872"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.3291,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.84686357,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"6247","last_page":"6252"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10761","display_name":"Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)","score":0.4571000039577484,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10761","display_name":"Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)","score":0.4571000039577484,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.10440000146627426,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13282","display_name":"Automated Road and Building Extraction","score":0.04910000041127205,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2212","display_name":"Ocean Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spoofing-attack","display_name":"Spoofing attack","score":0.8841999769210815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/global-positioning-system","display_name":"Global Positioning System","score":0.7806000113487244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cluster-analysis","display_name":"Cluster analysis","score":0.5202000141143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dbscan","display_name":"DBSCAN","score":0.5169000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise","display_name":"Noise (video)","score":0.5103999972343445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gps-signals","display_name":"GPS signals","score":0.41769999265670776}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167900197","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11081100","display_name":"Spoofing attack","level":2,"score":0.8841999769210815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C60229501","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18822","display_name":"Global Positioning System","level":2,"score":0.7806000113487244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7034000158309937},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73555534","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q622825","display_name":"Cluster analysis","level":2,"score":0.5202000141143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46576248","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1114630","display_name":"DBSCAN","level":5,"score":0.5169000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99498987","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2210247","display_name":"Noise (video)","level":3,"score":0.5103999972343445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.42899999022483826},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12957241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15903792","display_name":"GPS signals","level":4,"score":0.41769999265670776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.3903999924659729},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107551265","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1458245","display_name":"Displacement (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3386000096797943},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168167062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1117970","display_name":"Component (thermodynamics)","level":2,"score":0.3370000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.32600000500679016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C198613851","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q432394","display_name":"Assisted GPS","level":3,"score":0.3043000102043152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.26159998774528503},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.2556000053882599}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/smc58881.2025.11343401","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smc58881.2025.11343401","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2025 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","score":0.4749618470668793}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":31,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2082823623","https://openalex.org/W2130423988","https://openalex.org/W2166933393","https://openalex.org/W2321707316","https://openalex.org/W2332630870","https://openalex.org/W2586239168","https://openalex.org/W2591721791","https://openalex.org/W2600549283","https://openalex.org/W2885619172","https://openalex.org/W2904049729","https://openalex.org/W2904845535","https://openalex.org/W2953682668","https://openalex.org/W2954388198","https://openalex.org/W2963195425","https://openalex.org/W3006550473","https://openalex.org/W3097607538","https://openalex.org/W3140377724","https://openalex.org/W3167103746","https://openalex.org/W4200523398","https://openalex.org/W4205656656","https://openalex.org/W4362714293","https://openalex.org/W4388709707","https://openalex.org/W4400072132","https://openalex.org/W4404411081","https://openalex.org/W4404849272","https://openalex.org/W4406949855","https://openalex.org/W4408017688","https://openalex.org/W4409284804","https://openalex.org/W4410887572","https://openalex.org/W7116663241","https://openalex.org/W7125954427"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"As":[0],"autonomous":[1],"vehicles":[2],"become":[3],"an":[4,24,80],"essential":[5],"component":[6],"of":[7,36,63,108,153,172],"modern":[8],"transportation,":[9],"they":[10],"are":[11,124],"increasingly":[12],"vulnerable":[13],"to":[14,43,92,126],"threats":[15],"such":[16],"as":[17,77],"GPS":[18,67,98,133,175],"spoofing":[19,99,134,148,176],"attacks.":[20,135],"This":[21,160],"study":[22],"presents":[23],"adaptive":[25],"detection":[26,46,151],"approach":[27],"utilizing":[28],"a":[29,163],"dynamically":[30],"tuned":[31],"Density":[32],"Based":[33],"Spatial":[34],"Clustering":[35],"Applications":[37],"with":[38],"Noise":[39],"(DBSCAN)":[40],"algorithm,":[41],"designed":[42],"adjust":[44],"the":[45,57,90,102,106,109,116,168],"threshold":[47,52],"(\u03b5)":[48],"in":[49,166],"real-time.":[50],"The":[51,136],"is":[53],"updated":[54],"based":[55],"on":[56],"recursive":[58],"mean":[59],"and":[60,68,96,130,144,157,170],"standard":[61],"deviation":[62],"displacement":[64],"errors":[65],"between":[66],"in-vehicle":[69],"sensors":[70],"data,":[71],"but":[72],"only":[73],"at":[74],"instances":[75],"classified":[76],"non-anomalous.":[78],"Furthermore,":[79],"initial":[81],"threshold,":[82],"determined":[83],"from":[84,101,115],"120,000":[85],"clean":[86],"data":[87],"samples,":[88],"ensures":[89],"capability":[91],"identify":[93],"even":[94],"subtle":[95],"gradual":[97],"attempts":[100],"beginning.":[103],"To":[104],"assess":[105],"performance":[107],"proposed":[110],"method,":[111],"five":[112],"different":[113],"subsets":[114],"real-world":[117],"Honda":[118],"Research":[119],"Institute":[120],"Driving":[121],"Dataset":[122],"(HDD)":[123],"selected":[125],"simulate":[127],"both":[128],"large":[129],"small":[131,146],"magnitude":[132],"modified":[137],"algorithm":[138],"effectively":[139],"identifies":[140],"turn-by-turn,":[141],"stop,":[142],"overshoot,":[143],"multiple":[145],"biased":[147],"attacks,":[149],"achieving":[150],"accuracies":[152],"98.62\u00b11%,":[154],"99.96\u00b10.1%,":[155],"99.88\u00b10.1%,":[156],"98.38\u00b10.1%,":[158],"respectively.":[159],"work":[161],"provides":[162],"substantial":[164],"advancement":[165],"enhancing":[167],"security":[169],"safety":[171],"AVs":[173],"against":[174],"threats.":[177]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-04-21T08:09:41.155169","created_date":"2026-01-29T00:00:00"}