{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415378185","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smartgridcomm65349.2025.11204603","title":"Algorithmic Collusion among EV Charging Stations with Independent Reinforcement Learning Agents","display_name":"Algorithmic Collusion among EV Charging Stations with Independent Reinforcement Learning Agents","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-29","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415378185","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smartgridcomm65349.2025.11204603"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/smartgridcomm65349.2025.11204603","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smartgridcomm65349.2025.11204603","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2025 IEEE International Conference on Communications, Control, and Computing Technologies for Smart Grids (SmartGridComm)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102786866","display_name":"Yi Zeng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2787-9276"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16269868","display_name":"Santa Clara University","ror":"https://ror.org/03ypqe447","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yulin Zeng","raw_affiliation_strings":["Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5087984685","display_name":"Yiheng Zhao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0434-9539"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60158472","display_name":"Concordia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0420zvk78","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yiheng Zhao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Concordia University,Montréal,Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Concordia University,Montréal,Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036711281","display_name":"Yuanliang Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6741-5038"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60158472","display_name":"Concordia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0420zvk78","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuanliang Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Concordia University,Montréal,Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Concordia University,Montréal,Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102394831","display_name":"Yefeng Yuan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9021-1781"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16269868","display_name":"Santa Clara University","ror":"https://ror.org/03ypqe447","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yefeng Yuan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101693329","display_name":"Jie Gao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3768-7099"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98358874","display_name":"Delft University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02e2c7k09","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jie Gao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Delft University of Technology,Delft,Netherlands"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Delft University of Technology,Delft,Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5088920129","display_name":"Hepeng Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7775-9088"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7947594","display_name":"University of Maine","ror":"https://ror.org/01adr0w49","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802397601","https://openalex.org/I7947594"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hepeng Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Maine,ME,USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Maine,ME,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I7947594"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006429307","display_name":"Xuelin Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0197-7959"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16269868","display_name":"Santa Clara University","ror":"https://ror.org/03ypqe447","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiao\u2019Ou Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058969953","display_name":"Ho-Hyun Lee","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I51504820","display_name":"San Jose State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04qyvz380","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I51504820"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hohyun Lee","raw_affiliation_strings":["San José State University,San Jose,CA,USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"San José State University,San Jose,CA,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I51504820"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100324600","display_name":"Yuhong Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3717-427X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16269868","display_name":"Santa Clara University","ror":"https://ror.org/03ypqe447","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuhong Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Santa Clara University,Santa Clara,CA,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109363931","display_name":"Jun Yan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60158472","display_name":"Concordia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0420zvk78","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jun Yan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Concordia University,Montréal,Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Concordia University,Montréal,Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":10,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5102786866"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16269868"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.30662788,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"7"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10768","display_name":"Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure","score":0.9757999777793884,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10768","display_name":"Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure","score":0.9757999777793884,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.958299994468689,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11942","display_name":"Transportation and Mobility Innovations","score":0.9276999831199646,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/collusion","display_name":"Collusion","score":0.8592000007629395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.8493000268936157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tacit-collusion","display_name":"Tacit collusion","score":0.7513999938964844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/autonomous-agent","display_name":"Autonomous agent","score":0.48660001158714294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/realm","display_name":"Realm","score":0.3244999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/energy","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","score":0.32109999656677246}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781198186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q701521","display_name":"Collusion","level":2,"score":0.8592000007629395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.8493000268936157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778970417","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3683307","display_name":"Tacit collusion","level":3,"score":0.7513999938964844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6689000129699707},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13687954","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4826847","display_name":"Autonomous agent","level":2,"score":0.48660001158714294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.35929998755455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778757428","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1250464","display_name":"Realm","level":2,"score":0.3244999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186370098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442787","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.32109999656677246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779391423","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17009728","display_name":"Dynamic pricing","level":2,"score":0.31940001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41550386","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q529909","display_name":"Multi-agent system","level":2,"score":0.30880001187324524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9628104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q788009","display_name":"Autonomous system (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.26919999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67203356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321905","display_name":"Reinforcement","level":2,"score":0.25679999589920044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.2563999891281128},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42475967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194292","display_name":"Operations research","level":1,"score":0.25519999861717224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112972136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7595718","display_name":"Stability (learning theory)","level":2,"score":0.2540999948978424}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/smartgridcomm65349.2025.11204603","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/smartgridcomm65349.2025.11204603","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2025 IEEE International Conference on Communications, Control, and Computing Technologies for Smart Grids (SmartGridComm)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:scholarworks.sjsu.edu:faculty_rsca-7750","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/faculty_rsca/6750","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196389","display_name":"San Jos\u00e9 State University ScholarWorks (San Jose State University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I51504820","host_organization_name":"San Jose State University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I51504820"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Faculty Research, Scholarly, and Creative Activity","raw_type":"text"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":12,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1641379095","https://openalex.org/W2921123283","https://openalex.org/W2951360122","https://openalex.org/W2991046523","https://openalex.org/W3091196590","https://openalex.org/W3190428098","https://openalex.org/W4212871297","https://openalex.org/W4285237905","https://openalex.org/W4285285554","https://openalex.org/W4285308691","https://openalex.org/W4313591758","https://openalex.org/W4390638728"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Recent":[0],"advancements":[1],"in":[2,72,107],"reinforcement":[3,42],"learning":[4,43],"(RL)":[5],"have":[6],"significantly":[7],"enhanced":[8],"the":[9,17,67],"autonomous":[10,108],"decision-making":[11],"capabilities":[12],"of":[13,19,104],"energy":[14],"systems.":[15,110],"In":[16],"realm":[18],"electric":[20],"vehicle":[21],"(EV)":[22],"charging":[23,57],"stations,":[24],"operators":[25],"aim":[26],"to":[27],"autonomously":[28],"learn":[29],"optimal":[30],"pricing":[31,109],"strategies":[32],"based":[33],"on":[34],"local":[35],"observations":[36],"and":[37,62,102],"user":[38],"behavior.":[39],"Traditional":[40],"multi-agent":[41],"(MARL)":[44],"approaches":[45],"often":[46],"assume":[47],"cooperative":[48],"settings":[49],"with":[50],"reward":[51],"sharing":[52],"or":[53],"communication,":[54],"real-world":[55],"EV":[56],"infrastructures":[58],"are":[59],"typically":[60],"decentralized":[61,79],"competitive.":[63],"This":[64],"paper":[65],"investigates":[66],"potential":[68],"for":[69,99],"tacit":[70],"collusion":[71,106],"such":[73],"realistic,":[74],"non-cooperative":[75],"environments.":[76],"By":[77],"leveraging":[78],"MARL,":[80],"we":[81],"show":[82],"that":[83],"independently":[84],"trained":[85],"agents":[86],"can":[87],"still":[88],"exhibit":[89],"emergent":[90],"collusive":[91],"behaviors.":[92],"Our":[93],"findings":[94],"highlight":[95],"a":[96],"critical":[97],"need":[98],"systematic":[100],"evaluation":[101],"detection":[103],"algorithmic":[105]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-20T23:20:44.827607","created_date":"2025-10-21T00:00:00"}