{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4385469325","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321","title":"A Survey on ChatGPT: AI\u2013Generated Contents, Challenges, and Solutions","display_name":"A Survey on ChatGPT: AI\u2013Generated Contents, Challenges, and Solutions","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4385469325","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/8782664/9024218/10221755.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210176459","display_name":"IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society","issn_l":"2644-1268","issn":["2644-1268"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/8782664/9024218/10221755.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100605907","display_name":"Yuntao Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3810-7076"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuntao Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3810-7076","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067615830","display_name":"Yanghe Pan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1485-058X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yanghe Pan","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1485-058X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101847219","display_name":"Miao Yan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1229-0573"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Miao Yan","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1229-0573","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5066407180","display_name":"Zhou Su","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6518-3130"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhou Su","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6518-3130","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5040978564","display_name":"Tom H. Luan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5215-7443"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87445476","display_name":"Xi'an Jiaotong University","ror":"https://ror.org/017zhmm22","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tom H. Luan","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5215-7443","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyber Science, Engineering, Xi&#x0027;an Jiaotong University, Xi&#x0027;an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87445476"],"apc_list":{"value":1750,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1750},"apc_paid":{"value":1750,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1750},"fwci":43.5515,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":334,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99894322,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"4","issue":null,"first_page":"280","last_page":"302"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.9965000152587891,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pace","display_name":"Pace","score":0.723899781703949},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6438142657279968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.4664418697357178},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.4625963270664215},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generative-grammar","display_name":"Generative grammar","score":0.4560629427433014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/best-practice","display_name":"Best practice","score":0.41351091861724854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.2835754156112671},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.22198334336280823},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/political-science","display_name":"Political science","score":0.1075846254825592}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777526511","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q691543","display_name":"Pace","level":2,"score":0.723899781703949},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6438142657279968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.4664418697357178},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.4625963270664215},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39890363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36108","display_name":"Generative grammar","level":2,"score":0.4560629427433014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184356942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830382","display_name":"Best practice","level":2,"score":0.41351091861724854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.2835754156112671},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.22198334336280823},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.1075846254825592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13280743","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131089","display_name":"Geodesy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/8782664/9024218/10221755.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210176459","display_name":"IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society","issn_l":"2644-1268","issn":["2644-1268"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:85112d44a7db448ba8f7a34d246cf847","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/85112d44a7db448ba8f7a34d246cf847","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society, Vol 4, Pp 280-302 (2023)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ojcs.2023.3300321","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/8782664/9024218/10221755.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210176459","display_name":"IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society","issn_l":"2644-1268","issn":["2644-1268"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.5600000023841858}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2113035471","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2023M732820","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321543","funder_display_name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5138271045","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"U22A2029","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7167224382","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"U20A20175","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321543","display_name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/0426zh255"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335787","display_name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4385469325.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4385469325.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":116,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W107524893","https://openalex.org/W1497117049","https://openalex.org/W1936442755","https://openalex.org/W2075729786","https://openalex.org/W2152330031","https://openalex.org/W2269778407","https://openalex.org/W2339254090","https://openalex.org/W2461943168","https://openalex.org/W2462673559","https://openalex.org/W2535690855","https://openalex.org/W2579318729","https://openalex.org/W2594717275","https://openalex.org/W2767079719","https://openalex.org/W2774423163","https://openalex.org/W2781091734","https://openalex.org/W2790136966","https://openalex.org/W2806082141","https://openalex.org/W2930879870","https://openalex.org/W2934843808","https://openalex.org/W2958089299","https://openalex.org/W2963178695","https://openalex.org/W2963844355","https://openalex.org/W2964082701","https://openalex.org/W2964318098","https://openalex.org/W2969884768","https://openalex.org/W2970408908","https://openalex.org/W2973539365","https://openalex.org/W2974511010","https://openalex.org/W2976617189","https://openalex.org/W2981731882","https://openalex.org/W2981828710","https://openalex.org/W2990980946","https://openalex.org/W2995271548","https://openalex.org/W3012561096","https://openalex.org/W3039137470","https://openalex.org/W3048715803","https://openalex.org/W3094821564","https://openalex.org/W3107942585","https://openalex.org/W3109604561","https://openalex.org/W3135215287","https://openalex.org/W3135872251","https://openalex.org/W3138597937","https://openalex.org/W3143336910","https://openalex.org/W3154155772","https://openalex.org/W3156309620","https://openalex.org/W3168768313","https://openalex.org/W3172826360","https://openalex.org/W3175133087","https://openalex.org/W3179216274","https://openalex.org/W3181552969","https://openalex.org/W3191453585","https://openalex.org/W3206880386","https://openalex.org/W3213748123","https://openalex.org/W3215453688","https://openalex.org/W3216767138","https://openalex.org/W4210616537","https://openalex.org/W4210664862","https://openalex.org/W4221143046","https://openalex.org/W4225314275","https://openalex.org/W4226278401","https://openalex.org/W4287553002","https://openalex.org/W4288758078","https://openalex.org/W4294506858","https://openalex.org/W4294891500","https://openalex.org/W4298221930","https://openalex.org/W4300223384","https://openalex.org/W4307926598","https://openalex.org/W4309395891","https://openalex.org/W4311736699","https://openalex.org/W4312933868","https://openalex.org/W4315588830","https://openalex.org/W4316116392","https://openalex.org/W4320013936","https://openalex.org/W4323706279","https://openalex.org/W4353115070","https://openalex.org/W4361806024","https://openalex.org/W4362514681","https://openalex.org/W4365512576","https://openalex.org/W4365601249","https://openalex.org/W4365601405","https://openalex.org/W4366504184","https://openalex.org/W4367595583","https://openalex.org/W4378698024","https://openalex.org/W4381199094","https://openalex.org/W4385245566","https://openalex.org/W4385468994","https://openalex.org/W4385764187","https://openalex.org/W4389518968","https://openalex.org/W4390872921","https://openalex.org/W4392240262","https://openalex.org/W4404658388","https://openalex.org/W6739201545","https://openalex.org/W6739901393","https://openalex.org/W6746720608","https://openalex.org/W6746897123","https://openalex.org/W6747838042","https://openalex.org/W6766821575","https://openalex.org/W6768115207","https://openalex.org/W6770088130","https://openalex.org/W6770634426","https://openalex.org/W6787335730","https://openalex.org/W6791289774","https://openalex.org/W6797414954","https://openalex.org/W6809646742","https://openalex.org/W6810500556","https://openalex.org/W6810738896","https://openalex.org/W6810792567","https://openalex.org/W6846870107","https://openalex.org/W6849107809","https://openalex.org/W6850357939","https://openalex.org/W6850462617","https://openalex.org/W6851125442","https://openalex.org/W6851313210","https://openalex.org/W6851589186","https://openalex.org/W6851596329","https://openalex.org/W6852353527"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2002383399","https://openalex.org/W2386723501","https://openalex.org/W2387879414","https://openalex.org/W2390304029","https://openalex.org/W2354923724","https://openalex.org/W2146830340","https://openalex.org/W2377101853","https://openalex.org/W2362180844","https://openalex.org/W2105573916","https://openalex.org/W2378405797"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"With":[0],"the":[1,62,98,105,123,134,147,157],"widespread":[2],"use":[3],"of":[4,85,97,110,125,139],"large":[5,35],"artificial":[6],"intelligence":[7],"(AI)":[8],"models":[9],"such":[10],"as":[11],"ChatGPT,":[12],"AI-generated":[13],"content":[14,27,49],"(AIGC)":[15],"has":[16],"garnered":[17],"increasing":[18],"attention":[19],"and":[20,29,47,54,71,89,94,112,117,127,132,136,141,160,169],"is":[21],"leading":[22],"a":[23,51],"paradigm":[24],"shift":[25],"in":[26,43,66],"creation":[28],"knowledge":[30],"representation.":[31],"AIGC":[32,99,131,142,149,154,158],"uses":[33],"generative":[34],"AI":[36],"algorithms":[37],"to":[38,76,130,174],"assist":[39],"or":[40],"replace":[41],"humans":[42],"creating":[44],"massive,":[45],"high-quality,":[46],"human-like":[48],"at":[50],"faster":[52],"pace":[53],"lower":[55],"cost,":[56],"based":[57],"on":[58],"user-provided":[59],"prompts.":[60],"Despite":[61],"recent":[63],"significant":[64],"progress":[65],"AIGC,":[67,111],"security,":[68],"privacy,":[69],"ethical,":[70],"legal":[72],"challenges":[73,96,168],"still":[74],"need":[75],"be":[77],"addressed.":[78],"This":[79],"paper":[80],"presents":[81],"an":[82],"in-depth":[83],"survey":[84],"working":[86,115],"principles,":[87],"security":[88,126],"privacy":[90,128],"threats,":[91],"state-of-the-art":[92,148],"solutions,":[93],"future":[95,167],"paradigm.":[100],"Specifically,":[101],"we":[102,121,145,165],"first":[103],"explore":[104],"enabling":[106],"technologies,":[107],"general":[108],"architecture":[109],"discuss":[113],"its":[114,161],"modes":[116],"key":[118],"characteristics.":[119],"Then,":[120],"investigate":[122],"taxonomy":[124],"threats":[129],"highlight":[133],"ethical":[135],"societal":[137],"implications":[138],"GPT":[140],"technologies.":[143],"Furthermore,":[144],"review":[146],"watermarking":[150],"approaches":[151],"for":[152],"regulatable":[153],"paradigms":[155],"regarding":[156],"model":[159],"produced":[162],"content.":[163],"Finally,":[164],"identify":[166],"open":[170],"research":[171],"directions":[172],"related":[173],"AIGC.":[175]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":55},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":144},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":112},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":22},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-30T17:31:21.811387","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
