{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7124177400","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/mci.2025.3624194","title":"Black-Box Test-Time Ensemble","display_name":"Black-Box Test-Time Ensemble","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-14","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7124177400","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/mci.2025.3624194"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/mci.2025.3624194","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/mci.2025.3624194","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S104797584","display_name":"IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine","issn_l":"1556-603X","issn":["1556-603X","1556-6048"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5123003097","display_name":"Siyang Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47720641","display_name":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00p991c53","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Siyang Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7589-385X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Ziwei Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1324-2298"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47720641","display_name":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00p991c53","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ziwei Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1324-2298","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Chenhao Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4025-4389"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47720641","display_name":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00p991c53","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chenhao Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4025-4389","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Dongrui Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7153-9703"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47720641","display_name":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00p991c53","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dongrui Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7153-9703","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5123003097"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.09299994,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"21","issue":"1","first_page":"57","last_page":"68"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.5236999988555908,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.5236999988555908,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12535","display_name":"Machine Learning and Data Classification","score":0.06970000267028809,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11719","display_name":"Data Quality and Management","score":0.061900001019239426,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1803","display_name":"Management Science and Operations Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ensemble-learning","display_name":"Ensemble learning","score":0.4982999861240387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/flexibility","display_name":"Flexibility (engineering)","score":0.4749999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.4560000002384186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/majority-rule","display_name":"Majority rule","score":0.4309000074863434},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/voting","display_name":"Voting","score":0.4293000102043152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ensemble-forecasting","display_name":"Ensemble forecasting","score":0.40059998631477356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.3822999894618988},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cascading-classifiers","display_name":"Cascading classifiers","score":0.38190001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/binary-classification","display_name":"Binary classification","score":0.36329999566078186}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8611000180244446},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.6305000185966492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5691999793052673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45942800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245652","display_name":"Ensemble learning","level":2,"score":0.4982999861240387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780598303","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65921492","display_name":"Flexibility (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.4749999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.4560000002384186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153668964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27636","display_name":"Majority rule","level":2,"score":0.4309000074863434},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C520049643","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189760","display_name":"Voting","level":3,"score":0.4293000102043152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.4178999960422516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119898033","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3433888","display_name":"Ensemble forecasting","level":2,"score":0.40059998631477356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.3822999894618988},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40651066","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5048220","display_name":"Cascading classifiers","level":4,"score":0.38190001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66905080","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17005494","display_name":"Binary classification","level":3,"score":0.36329999566078186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.35749998688697815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.35589998960494995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779190172","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4913888","display_name":"Binary data","level":3,"score":0.3416000008583069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48372109","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3913","display_name":"Binary number","level":2,"score":0.3273000121116638},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116537","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2169973","display_name":"Service provider","level":3,"score":0.30889999866485596},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75684735","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858810","display_name":"Big data","level":2,"score":0.3084000051021576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132778050","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2065430","display_name":"Weighted voting","level":4,"score":0.30079999566078186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.3000999987125397},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151406439","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186588","display_name":"Time series","level":2,"score":0.2955999970436096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205711294","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176953","display_name":"Rendering (computer graphics)","level":2,"score":0.29269999265670776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123201435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q456632","display_name":"Information privacy","level":2,"score":0.2919999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.28029999136924744},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204323151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905424","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","level":2,"score":0.27959999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16910744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7705759","display_name":"Test data","level":2,"score":0.26750001311302185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C183003079","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1000371","display_name":"Personalization","level":2,"score":0.2619999945163727}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/mci.2025.3624194","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/mci.2025.3624194","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S104797584","display_name":"IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine","issn_l":"1556-603X","issn":["1556-603X","1556-6048"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.4936855435371399,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":41,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W9014458","https://openalex.org/W1534477342","https://openalex.org/W1947251450","https://openalex.org/W1991137221","https://openalex.org/W2023294425","https://openalex.org/W2046602115","https://openalex.org/W2086413055","https://openalex.org/W2096112399","https://openalex.org/W2099509424","https://openalex.org/W2110065044","https://openalex.org/W2113878109","https://openalex.org/W2119163516","https://openalex.org/W2167366427","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2283896980","https://openalex.org/W2329105431","https://openalex.org/W2408493841","https://openalex.org/W2538942427","https://openalex.org/W2556418146","https://openalex.org/W2585226541","https://openalex.org/W2627183927","https://openalex.org/W2739753637","https://openalex.org/W2741907166","https://openalex.org/W2759474451","https://openalex.org/W2763549966","https://openalex.org/W2804957865","https://openalex.org/W2883386984","https://openalex.org/W2884765233","https://openalex.org/W2916132663","https://openalex.org/W2979826702","https://openalex.org/W2981720610","https://openalex.org/W3041133507","https://openalex.org/W3135347465","https://openalex.org/W4212883601","https://openalex.org/W4232478844","https://openalex.org/W4311404181","https://openalex.org/W4385656459","https://openalex.org/W4387954182","https://openalex.org/W4391136507","https://openalex.org/W4392251648","https://openalex.org/W4400767051"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Privacy":[0],"considerations":[1],"have":[2],"become":[3],"increasingly":[4],"critical":[5],"in":[6],"the":[7,39,71,78,82,147,152,163],"deployment":[8],"of":[9,41,84,118,151],"modern":[10,109],"machine":[11,105],"learning":[12,106],"models.":[13,36],"To":[14],"protect":[15],"sensitive":[16],"data":[17],"and":[18,88,108,113,122,126,129,132,142,149,158,168],"reduce":[19],"storage":[20],"or":[21],"transmission":[22],"costs,":[23],"many":[24],"service":[25],"providers":[26],"offer":[27],"trained":[28],"models":[29,43],"via":[30],"APIs,":[31],"effectively":[32],"creating":[33],"privacy-preserving":[34],"black-box":[35,65],"However,":[37],"evaluating":[38],"performance":[40],"such":[42],"remains":[44],"to":[45],"be":[46],"a":[47,90,115],"significant":[48],"challenge,":[49],"especially":[50],"for":[51,64,174],"downstream":[52],"tasks":[53],"lacking":[54],"labeled":[55],"data.":[56],"This":[57],"paper":[58],"proposes":[59],"an":[60],"unsupervised":[61],"combination":[62,160],"method":[63],"test-time":[66],"ensemble.":[67],"By":[68],"utilizing":[69],"only":[70],"models\u2019":[72],"predictions":[73],"on":[74,137],"unlabeled":[75],"test":[76],"data,":[77],"proposed":[79,164],"approach":[80,99,165],"estimates":[81],"reliability":[83],"individual":[85],"base":[86],"classifiers":[87,107],"constructs":[89],"weighted":[91],"ensemble":[92],"that":[93,176],"favors":[94],"more":[95],"accurate":[96],"ones.":[97],"Our":[98],"is":[100,166],"compatible":[101],"with":[102],"both":[103,130],"traditional":[104],"large":[110],"language":[111],"models,":[112],"accommodates":[114],"wide":[116],"range":[117],"scenarios,":[119],"including":[120],"binary":[121],"multi-class":[123],"classification,":[124],"hard":[125],"soft":[127],"outputs,":[128],"offline":[131],"online":[133,178],"settings.":[134],"Extensive":[135],"experiments":[136],"13":[138],"real-world":[139],"text,":[140],"image,":[141],"time":[143],"series":[144],"datasets":[145],"verified":[146],"effectiveness":[148],"flexibility":[150],"approach,":[153],"consistently":[154],"outperforming":[155],"majority":[156],"voting":[157],"other":[159],"approaches.":[161],"Notably,":[162],"hyperparameter-free":[167],"computationally":[169],"efficient,":[170],"rendering":[171],"it":[172],"well-suited":[173],"applications":[175],"require":[177],"real-time":[179],"inference.":[180]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2026-01-15T00:00:00"}