{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3164775606","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/lwc.2021.3083099","title":"Countermeasures Against Adversarial Examples in Radio Signal Classification","display_name":"Countermeasures Against Adversarial Examples in Radio Signal Classification","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-05-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3164775606","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/lwc.2021.3083099","mag":"3164775606"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/lwc.2021.3083099","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/lwc.2021.3083099","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2500830676","display_name":"IEEE Wireless Communications Letters","issn_l":"2162-2337","issn":["2162-2337","2162-2345"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Wireless Communications Letters","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Countermeasures_against_adversarial_examples_in_radio_signal_classification/14999913","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100388695","display_name":"Lu Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0964-3873"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I143804889","display_name":"Loughborough University","ror":"https://ror.org/04vg4w365","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lu Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical, and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical, and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009232291","display_name":"Sangarapillai Lambotharan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5255-7036"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I143804889","display_name":"Loughborough University","ror":"https://ror.org/04vg4w365","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sangarapillai Lambotharan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical, and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical, and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024123401","display_name":"Gan Zheng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8457-6477"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I143804889","display_name":"Loughborough University","ror":"https://ror.org/04vg4w365","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gan Zheng","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical, and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical, and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030234358","display_name":"Basil AsSadhan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8074-0433"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I28022161","display_name":"King Saud University","ror":"https://ror.org/02f81g417","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28022161"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Basil AsSadhan","raw_affiliation_strings":["King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","Department of Computer Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28022161"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28022161"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065359946","display_name":"Fabio Roli","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4103-9190"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172446870","display_name":"University of Cagliari","ror":"https://ror.org/003109y17","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172446870"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fabio Roli","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy","Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172446870"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172446870"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100388695"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143804889"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.9392,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":32,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92374239,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"10","issue":"8","first_page":"1830","last_page":"1834"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12131","display_name":"Wireless Signal Modulation Classification","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12131","display_name":"Wireless Signal Modulation Classification","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9887999892234802,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10891","display_name":"Radar Systems and Signal Processing","score":0.9703999757766724,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7800837159156799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adversarial-system","display_name":"Adversarial system","score":0.7762340307235718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/countermeasure","display_name":"Countermeasure","score":0.7423301339149475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.5620600581169128},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5391924381256104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless-network","display_name":"Wireless network","score":0.5265824198722839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless","display_name":"Wireless","score":0.5263739228248596},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise","display_name":"Noise (video)","score":0.4721871614456177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.4693368971347809},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electronic-countermeasure","display_name":"Electronic countermeasure","score":0.46432796120643616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.44992905855178833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/smoothing","display_name":"Smoothing","score":0.4339084029197693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modulation","display_name":"Modulation (music)","score":0.4156655967235565},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.1917349398136139},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.09864282608032227}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7800837159156799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37736160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801315","display_name":"Adversarial system","level":2,"score":0.7762340307235718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21593369","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1032176","display_name":"Countermeasure","level":2,"score":0.7423301339149475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.5620600581169128},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5391924381256104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108037233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11375","display_name":"Wireless network","level":3,"score":0.5265824198722839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.5263739228248596},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99498987","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2210247","display_name":"Noise (video)","level":3,"score":0.4721871614456177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4693368971347809},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C131426668","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849203","display_name":"Electronic countermeasure","level":3,"score":0.46432796120643616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.44992905855178833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3770464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q775963","display_name":"Smoothing","level":2,"score":0.4339084029197693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123079801","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q750240","display_name":"Modulation (music)","level":2,"score":0.4156655967235565},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.1917349398136139},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.09864282608032227},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554190296","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47528","display_name":"Radar","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146978453","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3798668","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107038049","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35986","display_name":"Aesthetics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/lwc.2021.3083099","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/lwc.2021.3083099","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2500830676","display_name":"IEEE Wireless Communications Letters","issn_l":"2162-2337","issn":["2162-2337","2162-2345"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Wireless Communications Letters","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:figshare.com:article/14999913","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Countermeasures_against_adversarial_examples_in_radio_signal_classification/14999913","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196282","display_name":"Figshare","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210132348","host_organization_name":"Figshare (United Kingdom)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132348"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:iris.unica.it:11584/390443","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11584/390443","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196293","display_name":"UNICA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (University of Cagliari)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I172446870","host_organization_name":"University of Cagliari","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172446870"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:iris.unige.it:11567/1158784","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11567/1158784","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196291","display_name":"CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I83816512","host_organization_name":"University of Genoa","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I83816512"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:figshare.com:article/14999913","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Countermeasures_against_adversarial_examples_in_radio_signal_classification/14999913","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196282","display_name":"Figshare","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210132348","host_organization_name":"Figshare (United Kingdom)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132348"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G327027772","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"48160","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335087","funder_display_name":"Innovate UK"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3391727176","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"ISPP-18-134(2)","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321145","funder_display_name":"King Saud University"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4078854928","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EP/R006385/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4759739964","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"P/N007840/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5706540208","display_name":"Unlocking Potentials of MIMO Full-duplex Radios for Heterogeneous Networks (UPFRONT)","funder_award_id":"EP/N007840/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6997114215","display_name":"Communications Signal Processing Based Solutions for Massive Machine-to-Machine Networks (M3NETs)","funder_award_id":"EP/R006385/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8925317474","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EP/N007840/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321145","display_name":"King Saud University","ror":"https://ror.org/02f81g417"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0439y7842"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335087","display_name":"Innovate UK","ror":"https://ror.org/05ar5fy68"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338071","display_name":"Institute of Population and Public Health","ror":"https://ror.org/04dh0w640"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":9,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2091005538","https://openalex.org/W2170778725","https://openalex.org/W2773170971","https://openalex.org/W2888024549","https://openalex.org/W2908392948","https://openalex.org/W2950220341","https://openalex.org/W2963207607","https://openalex.org/W3022151098","https://openalex.org/W4293580221"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2387850992","https://openalex.org/W2362734542","https://openalex.org/W2391225515","https://openalex.org/W2382630346","https://openalex.org/W1598708558","https://openalex.org/W2390589810","https://openalex.org/W2365830296","https://openalex.org/W2373537330","https://openalex.org/W2390449206","https://openalex.org/W2977376051"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Deep":[0],"learning":[1,40],"algorithms":[2,41],"have":[3],"been":[4],"shown":[5],"to":[6,25,46,90],"be":[7],"powerful":[8],"in":[9,17,68],"many":[10],"communication":[11],"network":[12],"design":[13],"problems,":[14],"including":[15],"that":[16,88,102],"automatic":[18],"modulation":[19,69,110],"classification.":[20,70],"However,":[21],"they":[22],"are":[23],"vulnerable":[24],"carefully":[26],"crafted":[27],"attacks":[28],"called":[29],"adversarial":[30,66,94,114],"examples.":[31,115],"Hence,":[32],"the":[33,47,60,103],"reliance":[34],"of":[35,51],"wireless":[36,52],"networks":[37],"on":[38,75],"deep":[39],"poses":[42],"a":[43,63,76],"serious":[44],"threat":[45],"security":[48],"and":[49,84,92],"operation":[50],"networks.":[53],"In":[54],"this":[55],"letter,":[56],"we":[57],"propose":[58],"for":[59],"first":[61],"time":[62],"countermeasure":[64,72,105],"against":[65,113],"examples":[67,95],"Our":[71,99],"is":[73],"based":[74,109],"neural":[77],"rejection":[78],"technique,":[79],"augmented":[80],"by":[81],"label":[82],"smoothing":[83],"Gaussian":[85],"noise":[86],"injection,":[87],"allows":[89],"detect":[91],"reject":[93],"with":[96],"high":[97],"accuracy.":[98],"results":[100],"demonstrate":[101],"proposed":[104],"can":[106],"protect":[107],"deep-learning":[108],"classification":[111],"systems":[112]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-04-10T15:06:20.359241","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}