{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7113898522","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jsac.2025.3642227","title":"LLM-Guided DRL for Multi-Tier LEO Satellite Networks With Hybrid FSO/RF Links","display_name":"LLM-Guided DRL for Multi-Tier LEO Satellite Networks With Hybrid FSO/RF Links","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-12-10","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7113898522","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jsac.2025.3642227"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/jsac.2025.3642227","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jsac.2025.3642227","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S90422530","display_name":"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications","issn_l":"0733-8716","issn":["0733-8716","1558-0008"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jiahui Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7454-3257"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I194450716","display_name":"Jilin University","ror":"https://ror.org/00js3aw79","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I194450716"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210134929","display_name":"Jilin Province Science and Technology Department","ror":"https://ror.org/049x38272","country_code":"CN","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210134929"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiahui Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computer Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7454-3257","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210134929","https://openalex.org/I194450716"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Geng Sun","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7802-4908"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I194450716","display_name":"Jilin University","ror":"https://ror.org/00js3aw79","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I194450716"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Geng Sun","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Symbolic Computation and Knowledge Engineering of Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7802-4908","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Symbolic Computation and Knowledge Engineering of Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I194450716"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Zemin Sun","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5273-8232"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I194450716","display_name":"Jilin University","ror":"https://ror.org/00js3aw79","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I194450716"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210134929","display_name":"Jilin Province Science and Technology Department","ror":"https://ror.org/049x38272","country_code":"CN","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210134929"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zemin Sun","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computer Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5273-8232","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210134929","https://openalex.org/I194450716"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jiacheng Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1252-8761"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiacheng Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1252-8761","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Yinqiu Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6198-3712"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yinqiu Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6198-3712","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Ruichen Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6859-3645"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ruichen Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6859-3645","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Dusit Niyato","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7442-7416"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dusit Niyato","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7442-7416","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Jurong West, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Shiwen Mao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7052-0007"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82497590","display_name":"Auburn University","ror":"https://ror.org/02v80fc35","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82497590"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shiwen Mao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7052-0007","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82497590"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":26.9005,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":8,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9940375,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"44","issue":null,"first_page":"2393","last_page":"2410"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12042","display_name":"Satellite Communication Systems","score":0.9728999733924866,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12042","display_name":"Satellite Communication Systems","score":0.9728999733924866,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10851","display_name":"Optical Wireless Communication Technologies","score":0.010300000198185444,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11133","display_name":"UAV Applications and Optimization","score":0.004100000020116568,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/handover","display_name":"Handover","score":0.6963000297546387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications-link","display_name":"Telecommunications link","score":0.5357000231742859},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bandwidth","display_name":"Bandwidth (computing)","score":0.4952999949455261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transmission","display_name":"Transmission (telecommunications)","score":0.46970000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/resilience","display_name":"Resilience (materials science)","score":0.4307999908924103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/communications-satellite","display_name":"Communications satellite","score":0.4244000017642975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geostationary-orbit","display_name":"Geostationary orbit","score":0.36809998750686646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/satellite","display_name":"Satellite","score":0.3671000003814697},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless-network","display_name":"Wireless network","score":0.3635999858379364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/orthogonal-frequency-division-multiplexing","display_name":"Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing","score":0.35510000586509705}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8676000237464905},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111852164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1414679","display_name":"Handover","level":2,"score":0.6963000297546387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.5958999991416931},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138660444","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5607897","display_name":"Telecommunications link","level":2,"score":0.5357000231742859},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776257435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1576430","display_name":"Bandwidth (computing)","level":2,"score":0.4952999949455261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C761482","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q118093","display_name":"Transmission (telecommunications)","level":2,"score":0.46970000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.4415999948978424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779585090","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3457762","display_name":"Resilience (materials science)","level":2,"score":0.4307999908924103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121308736","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q149918","display_name":"Communications satellite","level":3,"score":0.4244000017642975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.39820000529289246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16405173","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192316","display_name":"Geostationary orbit","level":3,"score":0.36809998750686646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19269812","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26540","display_name":"Satellite","level":2,"score":0.3671000003814697},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108037233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11375","display_name":"Wireless network","level":3,"score":0.3635999858379364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40409654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q375889","display_name":"Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing","level":3,"score":0.35510000586509705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.3529999852180481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153646914","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q535695","display_name":"Cellular network","level":2,"score":0.3458999991416931},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203274722","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7001161","display_name":"Network performance","level":2,"score":0.3294999897480011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C193415008","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q639681","display_name":"Network architecture","level":2,"score":0.3273000121116638},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195563490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180368","display_name":"Network congestion","level":3,"score":0.3181000053882599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127162648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16858953","display_name":"Channel (broadcasting)","level":2,"score":0.3158999979496002},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.31520000100135803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778915421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3643177","display_name":"Performance improvement","level":2,"score":0.3095000088214874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70352696","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8928","display_name":"Constellation","level":2,"score":0.29120001196861267},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12725497","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q810247","display_name":"Baseline (sea)","level":2,"score":0.29030001163482666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114237682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5072483","display_name":"Channel allocation schemes","level":3,"score":0.28700000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74064498","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3396184","display_name":"Radio frequency","level":2,"score":0.2840000092983246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13540734","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5318996","display_name":"Dynamic network analysis","level":2,"score":0.27140000462532043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778027091","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25346003","display_name":"Satellite system","level":4,"score":0.2671999931335449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108921912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7834639","display_name":"Transmission delay","level":3,"score":0.26260000467300415},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192126672","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1068715","display_name":"Telecommunications network","level":2,"score":0.2581000030040741},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780609101","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17156588","display_name":"Resource management (computing)","level":2,"score":0.25760000944137573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95491727","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q992968","display_name":"Mobile telephony","level":3,"score":0.25279998779296875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199845137","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q145490","display_name":"Network topology","level":2,"score":0.2513999938964844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C157607044","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165851","display_name":"Control channel","level":3,"score":0.25029999017715454}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/jsac.2025.3642227","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jsac.2025.3642227","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S90422530","display_name":"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications","issn_l":"0733-8716","issn":["0733-8716","1558-0008"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8059471845626831,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/13","display_name":"Climate action"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1870345133","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62471200","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6464733988","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62272194","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7142980474","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"I2301E0026","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320696","funder_display_name":"Agency for Science, Technology and Research"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320696","display_name":"Agency for Science, Technology and Research","ror":"https://ror.org/036wvzt09"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Despite":[0],"significant":[1],"advancements":[2],"in":[3,9,190],"terrestrial":[4],"networks,":[5],"inherent":[6],"limitations":[7],"persist":[8],"providing":[10],"reliable":[11],"coverage":[12,83],"to":[13,81,115,168,175,205],"remote":[14],"areas":[15],"and":[16,30,43,51,68,76,100,121,128,137,172,197],"maintaining":[17,85],"resilience":[18,103],"during":[19],"natural":[20],"disasters.":[21],"Multi-tier":[22],"networks":[23],"with":[24,71,139,158],"low":[25],"Earth":[26],"orbit":[27],"(LEO)":[28],"satellites":[29],"high-altitude":[31],"platforms":[32],"(HAPs)":[33],"offer":[34],"promising":[35],"solutions,":[36],"but":[37],"face":[38],"challenges":[39],"from":[40],"high":[41,93],"mobility":[42],"dynamic":[44,136,159,165],"channel":[45],"conditions":[46],"that":[47,63,163,182,203],"cause":[48],"unstable":[49],"connections":[50],"frequent":[52],"handovers.":[53],"In":[54],"this":[55],"paper,":[56],"we":[57,146],"design":[58],"a":[59,111,148],"three-tier":[60],"network":[61,126],"architecture":[62],"integrates":[64],"LEO":[65],"satellites,":[66],"HAPs,":[67],"ground":[69],"terminals":[70],"hybrid":[72,89],"free-space":[73],"optical":[74],"(FSO)":[75],"radio":[77],"frequency":[78,123],"(RF)":[79],"links":[80,99],"maximize":[82],"while":[84],"connectivity":[86],"reliability.":[87],"This":[88],"approach":[90],"leverages":[91],"the":[92,101,183,211],"bandwidth":[94],"of":[95,104,192],"FSO":[96],"for":[97,106],"satellite-to-HAP":[98],"weather":[102],"RF":[105],"HAP-to-ground":[107],"links.":[108],"We":[109,200],"formulate":[110],"joint":[112],"optimization":[113],"problem":[114,133],"simultaneously":[116],"balance":[117],"downlink":[118,194],"transmission":[119,195],"rate":[120],"handover":[122,130,198],"by":[124],"optimizing":[125],"configuration":[127],"satellite":[129],"decisions.":[131],"The":[132],"is":[134],"highly":[135],"non-convex":[138],"time-coupled":[140],"constraints.":[141],"To":[142],"address":[143],"these":[144],"challenges,":[145],"propose":[147],"novel":[149],"large":[150],"language":[151],"model":[152],"(LLM)-guided":[153],"truncated":[154],"quantile":[155],"critics":[156],"algorithm":[157,186],"action":[160,166],"masking":[161,167],"(LTQC-DAM)":[162],"utilizes":[164],"eliminate":[169],"unnecessary":[170],"exploration":[171],"employs":[173],"LLMs":[174],"adaptively":[176],"tune":[177],"hyperparameters.":[178],"Simulation":[179],"results":[180],"demonstrate":[181],"proposed":[184],"LTQC-DAM":[185],"outperforms":[187],"baseline":[188],"algorithms":[189],"terms":[191],"convergence,":[193],"rate,":[196],"frequency.":[199],"also":[201],"reveal":[202],"compared":[204],"other":[206],"state-of-the-art":[207],"LLMs,":[208],"DeepSeek":[209],"delivers":[210],"best":[212],"performance":[213],"through":[214],"gradual,":[215],"contextually-aware":[216],"parameter":[217],"adjustments.":[218]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-02-21T06:11:54.161237","created_date":"2025-12-11T00:00:00"}