{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7128484789","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","title":"ZK-Sandbox: Zero-Knowledge Data Sandbox System for Enhancing End-to-End Security and Privacy of Verifiable Credentials","display_name":"ZK-Sandbox: Zero-Knowledge Data Sandbox System for Enhancing End-to-End Security and Privacy of Verifiable Credentials","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7128484789","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2480266640","display_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","issn_l":"2327-4662","issn":["2327-4662","2372-2541"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112654941","display_name":"Seung Kwon Lee","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I197347611","display_name":"Korea University","ror":"https://ror.org/047dqcg40","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Seung Kwon Lee","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8359-8274","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030595861","display_name":"Mpyana Mwamba Merlec","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8458-4706"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I197347611","display_name":"Korea University","ror":"https://ror.org/047dqcg40","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mpyana Mwamba Merlec","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8458-4706","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043199156","display_name":"Nday Kabulo Sinai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4995-9736"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I197347611","display_name":"Korea University","ror":"https://ror.org/047dqcg40","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nday Kabulo Sinai","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4995-9736","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028039373","display_name":"Seng-Phil Hong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-7313"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I36738375","display_name":"Hanshin University","ror":"https://ror.org/039fgyk85","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36738375"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Seng-Phil Hong","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing and AI, Hanshin University, Seoul, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-7313","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing and AI, Hanshin University, Seoul, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I36738375"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109266935","display_name":"Hoh Peter","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I197347611","display_name":"Korea University","ror":"https://ror.org/047dqcg40","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hoh Peter In","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4192-4122","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I197347611"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":9.1386,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95765971,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":"9","first_page":"19141","last_page":"19156"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.5213000178337097,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.5213000178337097,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11424","display_name":"Security and Verification in Computing","score":0.2526000142097473,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.07360000163316727,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/verifiable-secret-sharing","display_name":"Verifiable secret sharing","score":0.8302000164985657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/credential","display_name":"Credential","score":0.7710999846458435},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identifier","display_name":"Identifier","score":0.5169000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hash-function","display_name":"Hash function","score":0.47369998693466187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/digital-signature","display_name":"Digital signature","score":0.44429999589920044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sandbox","display_name":"Sandbox (software development)","score":0.4221000075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/security-token","display_name":"Security token","score":0.38420000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-privacy","display_name":"Information privacy","score":0.37940001487731934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/json","display_name":"JSON","score":0.3431999981403351},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/trusted-computing-base","display_name":"Trusted computing base","score":0.3337000012397766}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8529999852180481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C85847156","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59015987","display_name":"Verifiable secret sharing","level":3,"score":0.8302000164985657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777810591","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16861606","display_name":"Credential","level":2,"score":0.7710999846458435},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.7027000188827515},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154504017","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853614","display_name":"Identifier","level":2,"score":0.5169000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99138194","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183427","display_name":"Hash function","level":2,"score":0.47369998693466187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118463975","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220849","display_name":"Digital signature","level":3,"score":0.44429999589920044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167981075","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2667186","display_name":"Sandbox (software development)","level":2,"score":0.4221000075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48145219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1335365","display_name":"Security token","level":2,"score":0.38420000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123201435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q456632","display_name":"Information privacy","level":2,"score":0.37940001487731934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.3522000014781952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780416260","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2063","display_name":"JSON","level":2,"score":0.3431999981403351},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C147346212","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5492632","display_name":"Trusted computing base","level":4,"score":0.3337000012397766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108710211","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11538","display_name":"Mathematical proof","level":2,"score":0.31940001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38369872","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7445009","display_name":"Security analysis","level":2,"score":0.3192000091075897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44209976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1327773","display_name":"Non-repudiation","level":3,"score":0.3098999857902527},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11560541","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1756025","display_name":"Replay attack","level":3,"score":0.30250000953674316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779201187","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2775060","display_name":"Information leakage","level":2,"score":0.29089999198913574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140547941","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7797194","display_name":"Threat model","level":2,"score":0.2847000062465668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33762810","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q461671","display_name":"Data integrity","level":2,"score":0.2768999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.2718000113964081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110406131","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41349","display_name":"Smart card","level":2,"score":0.2646999955177307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C141492731","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1052621","display_name":"Message authentication code","level":3,"score":0.2630000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778000800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830043","display_name":"Handshake","level":3,"score":0.26190000772476196},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111498074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173326","display_name":"Formal verification","level":2,"score":0.2590000033378601},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148417208","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4825882","display_name":"Authentication (law)","level":2,"score":0.25769999623298645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203062551","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201339","display_name":"Public-key cryptography","level":3,"score":0.2556999921798706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167529545","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q274758","display_name":"Public key certificate","level":4,"score":0.2556000053882599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93996380","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44127","display_name":"Server","level":2,"score":0.25540000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121822524","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5157582","display_name":"Computer security model","level":2,"score":0.2526000142097473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139089976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2142273","display_name":"Trusted third party","level":2,"score":0.25099998712539673}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2480266640","display_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","issn_l":"2327-4662","issn":["2327-4662","2372-2541"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2026.3662381","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2480266640","display_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","issn_l":"2327-4662","issn":["2327-4662","2372-2541"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3343054857","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"NRF\u20132021R1A2C2012476","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322120","funder_display_name":"National Research Foundation of Korea"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322120","display_name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","ror":"https://ror.org/013aysd81"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":52,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1691726","https://openalex.org/W154477552","https://openalex.org/W167928972","https://openalex.org/W2019509629","https://openalex.org/W2089128139","https://openalex.org/W2152005134","https://openalex.org/W2165210192","https://openalex.org/W2208250362","https://openalex.org/W2296718334","https://openalex.org/W2496543269","https://openalex.org/W2505316054","https://openalex.org/W2507130841","https://openalex.org/W2516241807","https://openalex.org/W2569936787","https://openalex.org/W2603729641","https://openalex.org/W2803185452","https://openalex.org/W2884325794","https://openalex.org/W2897450989","https://openalex.org/W2913096406","https://openalex.org/W2914805061","https://openalex.org/W2921606246","https://openalex.org/W2926066880","https://openalex.org/W2954975888","https://openalex.org/W2965782153","https://openalex.org/W3010598706","https://openalex.org/W3011082615","https://openalex.org/W3089741453","https://openalex.org/W3094299549","https://openalex.org/W3114231530","https://openalex.org/W3202199074","https://openalex.org/W3215664193","https://openalex.org/W4211216164","https://openalex.org/W4226176725","https://openalex.org/W4230575913","https://openalex.org/W4283710326","https://openalex.org/W4287585808","https://openalex.org/W4295971343","https://openalex.org/W4309779378","https://openalex.org/W4384030700","https://openalex.org/W4385080297","https://openalex.org/W4392249529","https://openalex.org/W4392309153","https://openalex.org/W4394924531","https://openalex.org/W4399009664","https://openalex.org/W4402238371","https://openalex.org/W4404455335","https://openalex.org/W4404901221","https://openalex.org/W4405429586","https://openalex.org/W4406729527","https://openalex.org/W4408750010","https://openalex.org/W4410367570","https://openalex.org/W4413680191"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,103],"rapid":[1],"adoption":[2],"of":[3,133],"Verifiable":[4],"Credentials":[5],"(VCs)":[6],"has":[7],"intensified":[8],"privacy":[9,25],"and":[10,27,36,61,68,100,114,136,147,161],"security":[11],"challenges":[12],"in":[13,38],"digital":[14,166],"verification,":[15,96,146],"as":[16],"traditional":[17],"systems":[18,40],"often":[19],"require":[20],"full":[21],"credential":[22,66,167],"disclosure,":[23],"creating":[24],"risks":[26],"expanding":[28],"the":[29],"attack":[30],"surface.":[31],"Ensuring":[32],"end-to-end":[33],"privacy,":[34],"security,":[35],"verifiability":[37],"such":[39],"remains":[41],"a":[42,48,111,117,158],"significant":[43],"challenge.":[44],"This":[45],"paper":[46],"introducesZK-Sandbox,":[47],"Zero-Knowledge":[49],"Data":[50],"Sandbox":[51],"System":[52],"that":[53,155],"integrates":[54],"zero-knowledge":[55],"proofs":[56],"(ZKPs),":[57],"decentralized":[58],"identifiers":[59],"(DIDs),":[60],"blockchain":[62],"anchoring":[63],"to":[64,110,116],"enable":[65],"validation":[67,129],"verifiable":[69],"badge":[70],"issuance":[71,141],"without":[72],"exposing":[73],"underlying":[74],"data.":[75],"ZK-Sandbox":[76,156],"supports":[77],"complex":[78],"predicate":[79],"evaluation":[80,126],"by":[81],"securely":[82],"aggregating":[83],"multiple":[84],"VCs":[85],"from":[86],"trusted":[87],"issuers,":[88],"processing":[89],"them":[90],"via":[91],"JSON":[92],"Web":[93],"Token":[94],"signature":[95],"Circom-based":[97],"zk-SNARK":[98],"circuits,":[99],"Docker-isolated":[101],"execution.":[102],"system":[104],"issues":[105],"VC-compatible":[106],"ZK-Badges,":[107],"cryptographically":[108],"bound":[109],"Poseidon":[112],"hash":[113],"anchored":[115],"blockchain-registered":[118],"DID,":[119],"containing":[120],"only":[121],"abstracted":[122],"verification":[123],"results.":[124],"Experimental":[125],"confirms":[127],"100%":[128],"accuracy,":[130],"complete":[131],"detection":[132],"tampered":[134],"submissions,":[135],"efficient":[137],"performance\u2013averaging":[138],"326":[139],"ms":[140,144],"latency,":[142],"570":[143],"off-chain":[145],"4.45":[148],"s":[149],"on-chain":[150],"verification.":[151],"These":[152],"results":[153],"demonstrate":[154],"is":[157],"privacy-by-design,":[159],"scalable,":[160],"regulation-aligned":[162],"solution":[163],"for":[164],"self-sovereign":[165],"ecosystems.":[168]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-08-01T09:00:35.917206","created_date":"2026-02-11T00:00:00"}
