{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4410985966","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2025.3576206","title":"A Data-Driven Study of IoT Malware Classification Models: Insights Into Temporal, Architectural, and Spatial Inconsistency Challenges","display_name":"A Data-Driven Study of IoT Malware Classification Models: Insights Into Temporal, Architectural, and Spatial Inconsistency Challenges","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-06-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4410985966","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2025.3576206"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/jiot.2025.3576206","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2025.3576206","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2480266640","display_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","issn_l":"2327-4662","issn":["2327-4662","2372-2541"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063723140","display_name":"Yefei Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60158472","display_name":"Concordia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0420zvk78","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yefei Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Security Research Centre, Concordia Institute for Information Systems Engineering, Montréal, QC, Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6198-4208","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Security Research Centre, Concordia Institute for Information Systems Engineering, Montréal, QC, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048698954","display_name":"Sadegh Torabi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2811-3536"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162714631","display_name":"George Mason University","ror":"https://ror.org/02jqj7156","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162714631"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sadegh Torabi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Secure Information Systems, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA","Center for Secure Information Systems (CSIS), George Mason University (GMU), Fairfax, VA, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2811-3536","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Secure Information Systems, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162714631"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Secure Information Systems (CSIS), George Mason University (GMU), Fairfax, VA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162714631"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5061710167","display_name":"Jun Yan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5148-1399"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60158472","display_name":"Concordia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0420zvk78","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jun Yan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Security Research Centre, Concordia Institute for Information Systems Engineering, Montréal, QC, Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5148-1399","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Security Research Centre, Concordia Institute for Information Systems Engineering, Montréal, QC, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5072393948","display_name":"Chadi Assi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3161-1846"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60158472","display_name":"Concordia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0420zvk78","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chadi Assi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Security Research Centre, Concordia Institute for Information Systems Engineering, Montréal, QC, Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3161-1846","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Security Research Centre, Concordia Institute for Information Systems Engineering, Montréal, QC, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60158472"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.8049,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.84659858,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":"15","first_page":"32205","last_page":"32219"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9976000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9976000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9847000241279602,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11512","display_name":"Anomaly Detection Techniques and Applications","score":0.9699000120162964,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8236198425292969},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/malware","display_name":"Malware","score":0.6643633842468262},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-modeling","display_name":"Data modeling","score":0.5764181017875671},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.47642096877098083},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/internet-of-things","display_name":"Internet of Things","score":0.43644118309020996},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.3638930320739746},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-computing","display_name":"Distributed computing","score":0.35224467515945435},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.23277443647384644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/database","display_name":"Database","score":0.18354973196983337}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8236198425292969},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C541664917","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14001","display_name":"Malware","level":2,"score":0.6643633842468262},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.5764181017875671},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.47642096877098083},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81860439","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q251212","display_name":"Internet of Things","level":2,"score":0.43644118309020996},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.3638930320739746},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.35224467515945435},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.23277443647384644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77088390","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8513","display_name":"Database","level":1,"score":0.18354973196983337}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/jiot.2025.3576206","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2025.3576206","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2480266640","display_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","issn_l":"2327-4662","issn":["2327-4662","2372-2541"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7018254029","display_name":"Collaborative Research: CISE MSI: RPEP: OAC: Macroscopic and Microscopic Inference and Analysis of Vulnerabilities within EV Charging-Management Systems","funder_award_id":"2431617","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321588","display_name":"Concordia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0420zvk78"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334593","display_name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","ror":"https://ror.org/01h531d29"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":51,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1510523207","https://openalex.org/W1567602083","https://openalex.org/W1660994971","https://openalex.org/W1669806660","https://openalex.org/W1670263352","https://openalex.org/W1769852110","https://openalex.org/W1989101984","https://openalex.org/W2056107175","https://openalex.org/W2098888151","https://openalex.org/W2143426320","https://openalex.org/W2514847810","https://openalex.org/W2612404666","https://openalex.org/W2794801050","https://openalex.org/W2861867928","https://openalex.org/W2887597525","https://openalex.org/W2962687275","https://openalex.org/W2966342255","https://openalex.org/W2994804501","https://openalex.org/W3002912819","https://openalex.org/W3016048014","https://openalex.org/W3016369654","https://openalex.org/W3024340288","https://openalex.org/W3048726132","https://openalex.org/W3094626883","https://openalex.org/W3095718454","https://openalex.org/W3097652319","https://openalex.org/W3097730806","https://openalex.org/W3113371616","https://openalex.org/W3131954256","https://openalex.org/W3134215180","https://openalex.org/W3134731862","https://openalex.org/W3168337308","https://openalex.org/W3172909833","https://openalex.org/W3174621618","https://openalex.org/W3194586437","https://openalex.org/W4210345192","https://openalex.org/W4210611912","https://openalex.org/W4210802791","https://openalex.org/W4281659734","https://openalex.org/W4283313119","https://openalex.org/W4287644588","https://openalex.org/W4308351818","https://openalex.org/W4310386984","https://openalex.org/W4391558398","https://openalex.org/W4408529725","https://openalex.org/W6631388279","https://openalex.org/W6737947904","https://openalex.org/W6745121187","https://openalex.org/W6753153400","https://openalex.org/W6849826978","https://openalex.org/W6874106224"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2097492617","https://openalex.org/W2753240997","https://openalex.org/W1764168690","https://openalex.org/W2537959205","https://openalex.org/W2740895074","https://openalex.org/W2772446090","https://openalex.org/W4284893819","https://openalex.org/W3152891574","https://openalex.org/W4316881845","https://openalex.org/W2975527072"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"To":[0,74],"combat":[1],"the":[2,14,59,62,66,71,76,82,100,103,192,202],"growing":[3],"IoT":[4,34],"malware":[5,35],"threat,":[6],"many":[7],"studies":[8],"propose":[9],"ML-based":[10],"classification":[11,36],"solutions,":[12],"but":[13],"lack":[15],"of":[16,102],"comprehensive":[17],"evaluations":[18],"limits":[19],"insights":[20],"for":[21],"developing":[22],"new":[23],"solutions":[24],"and":[25,44,49,61,80,96,113,126,176,205],"selecting":[26],"models.":[27,120],"Given":[28,99],"this":[29,31],"necessity,":[30],"work":[32],"evaluates":[33],"models":[37],"under":[38,196],"three":[39,88],"key":[40],"challenges:":[41],"temporal,":[42],"architectural,":[43],"spatial":[45,152,160],"inconsistencies":[46,128],"between":[47,70],"development":[48,105],"deployment":[50],"datasets,":[51],"which":[52],"can":[53],"be":[54],"regarded":[55],"as":[56],"variables":[57],"characterizing":[58],"dataset,":[60],"challenges":[63],"arise":[64],"from":[65],"variable":[67],"values":[68],"inconsistency":[69,97,135,144,153],"two":[72],"stages.":[73],"improve":[75],"conclusions\u2019":[77],"comprehensiveness,":[78],"effectiveness,":[79],"generalizability,":[81],"evaluation":[83,108],"is":[84],"organized":[85],"hierarchically":[86],"across":[87,118],"levels":[89],"based":[90],"on":[91],"model":[92,104,111,131,193],"generation,":[93],"sample":[94],"variation,":[95],"assumptions.":[98],"complexity":[101],"pipeline,":[106],"our":[107],"treats":[109],"each":[110],"individually":[112],"aims":[114],"to":[115,167,171,190,210],"conclude":[116],"impacts":[117],"all":[119],"The":[121],"analysis":[122],"reveals":[123],"that":[124,179],"temporal":[125,148,174],"architectural":[127,134,177,197],"significantly":[129],"degrade":[130],"performance,":[132],"with":[133,147,158],"having":[136],"a":[137,187],"greater":[138],"impact,":[139,156],"despite":[140],"cross-architecture":[141],"designs.":[142],"Temporal":[143],"effects":[145],"vary":[146],"value":[149],"differences,":[150],"while":[151],"has":[154],"minimal":[155],"even":[157],"substantial":[159],"variation.":[161],"Furthermore,":[162],"we":[163,185,200],"use":[164],"one-way":[165],"ANOVA":[166],"identify":[168],"features":[169],"contributing":[170],"family":[172],"distinguishability,":[173],"stability,":[175],"generalizability":[178],"benefit":[180],"future":[181],"solution":[182],"design.":[183],"Meanwhile,":[184],"studied":[186],"specific":[188],"example":[189],"study":[191],"performance":[194],"degradation":[195],"inconsistency.":[198],"Finally,":[199],"summarize":[201],"lessons":[203],"learned":[204],"outline":[206],"potential":[207],"research":[208],"directions":[209],"address":[211],"these":[212],"challenges.":[213]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}