{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4392251898","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2024.3371378","title":"Spoofing Detection for LiDAR in Autonomous Vehicles: A Physical-Layer Approach","display_name":"Spoofing Detection for LiDAR in Autonomous Vehicles: A Physical-Layer Approach","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-02-28","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4392251898","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2024.3371378"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/jiot.2024.3371378","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2024.3371378","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2480266640","display_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","issn_l":"2327-4662","issn":["2327-4662","2372-2541"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045980180","display_name":"Xueyang Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5229-6462"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82497590","display_name":"Auburn University","ror":"https://ror.org/02v80fc35","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82497590"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xueyang Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science and Software Engineering Department, Auburn University at Auburn, Auburn, AL, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5229-6462","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science and Software Engineering Department, Auburn University at Auburn, Auburn, AL, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82497590"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076177064","display_name":"Tian Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0001-8898"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210123185","display_name":"Zhejiang Lab","ror":"https://ror.org/02m2h7991","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210123185"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tian Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Center of Intelligent Computing Infrastructure Innovation, Zhejiang Laboratory, Hangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0001-8898","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Center of Intelligent Computing Infrastructure Innovation, Zhejiang Laboratory, Hangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210123185"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037017610","display_name":"Tao Shu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0173-2559"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82497590","display_name":"Auburn University","ror":"https://ror.org/02v80fc35","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82497590"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tao Shu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science and Software Engineering Department, Auburn University at Auburn, Auburn, AL, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0173-2559","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science and Software Engineering Department, Auburn University at Auburn, Auburn, AL, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82497590"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100697893","display_name":"Diep N. Nguyen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2659-8648"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I114017466","display_name":"University of Technology Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03f0f6041","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I114017466"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Diep Nguyen","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical and Data Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2659-8648","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical and Data Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114017466"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.1952,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":18,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.91731703,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"11","issue":"11","first_page":"20673","last_page":"20689"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.9980999827384949,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.9980999827384949,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9900000095367432,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10761","display_name":"Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)","score":0.984499990940094,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spoofing-attack","display_name":"Spoofing attack","score":0.8966562747955322},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lidar","display_name":"Lidar","score":0.8818663358688354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7757937908172607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/correctness","display_name":"Correctness","score":0.4937492311000824},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.492269903421402},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/real-time-computing","display_name":"Real-time computing","score":0.4901760220527649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.4559843838214874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.4554973244667053},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.36983102560043335},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/remote-sensing","display_name":"Remote sensing","score":0.24065986275672913}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167900197","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11081100","display_name":"Spoofing attack","level":2,"score":0.8966562747955322},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51399673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q504027","display_name":"Lidar","level":2,"score":0.8818663358688354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7757937908172607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55439883","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q360812","display_name":"Correctness","level":2,"score":0.4937492311000824},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.492269903421402},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.4901760220527649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.4559843838214874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.4554973244667053},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.36983102560043335},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.24065986275672913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/jiot.2024.3371378","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2024.3371378","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2480266640","display_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","issn_l":"2327-4662","issn":["2327-4662","2372-2541"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4564694382","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"CNS-2006998","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G928223513","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"CNS-2308761","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":35,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1966032405","https://openalex.org/W2080611336","https://openalex.org/W2155328695","https://openalex.org/W2563313883","https://openalex.org/W2594535555","https://openalex.org/W2740323046","https://openalex.org/W2792310067","https://openalex.org/W2792919579","https://openalex.org/W2803952932","https://openalex.org/W2897907037","https://openalex.org/W2907496300","https://openalex.org/W2959364614","https://openalex.org/W2975666822","https://openalex.org/W3002593840","https://openalex.org/W3008528105","https://openalex.org/W3037361310","https://openalex.org/W3045476482","https://openalex.org/W3098881644","https://openalex.org/W3106226785","https://openalex.org/W3108101353","https://openalex.org/W3130417897","https://openalex.org/W3136022415","https://openalex.org/W3172343269","https://openalex.org/W3186423419","https://openalex.org/W3196302005","https://openalex.org/W3202329027","https://openalex.org/W3202826853","https://openalex.org/W3211003315","https://openalex.org/W4205867306","https://openalex.org/W4288391441","https://openalex.org/W4298870207","https://openalex.org/W4330338463","https://openalex.org/W6725091323","https://openalex.org/W6780439892","https://openalex.org/W6850397297"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4319317934","https://openalex.org/W4406302447","https://openalex.org/W2901265155","https://openalex.org/W2956374172","https://openalex.org/W3008339103","https://openalex.org/W1667647204","https://openalex.org/W4319837668","https://openalex.org/W4308071650","https://openalex.org/W2404647514","https://openalex.org/W3188333020"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Recent":[0],"years":[1],"have":[2],"witnessed":[3],"the":[4,15,79,82,102,108,118,125,128,142,156,165,184,216,222,243],"ever-growing":[5],"interest":[6],"and":[7,20,38,130,147,154,171,202,210,227,273],"adoption":[8],"of":[9,81,127,145,158,169,207,215,245,271],"autonomous":[10],"vehicles":[11],"(AVs),":[12],"thanks":[13],"to":[14,45,52,116,123,151,181,240],"latest":[16],"advancement":[17],"in":[18,248,259,267],"sensing":[19,84,186],"artificial":[21],"intelligence":[22],"(AI)":[23],"technologies.":[24],"The":[25],"LiDAR":[26,64,146,159,185],"sensor":[27],"is":[28,225],"adopted":[29],"by":[30,68,107],"most":[31],"AV":[32],"manufacturers":[33],"for":[34,56],"its":[35],"high":[36,39],"precision":[37],"reliability.":[40],"Unfortunately,":[41],"LiDARs":[42],"are":[43,265],"susceptible":[44],"malicious":[46],"spoofing":[47,66,133,172,223,237,256],"attacks,":[48],"which":[49,177,251],"can":[50,89,178,252],"lead":[51],"severe":[53],"safety":[54],"consequences":[55],"AVs.":[57],"Most":[58],"current":[59],"work":[60],"focuses":[61],"on":[62,78],"protecting":[63],"against":[65],"attacks":[67],"using":[69],"perception":[70],"model-level":[71],"defense":[72],"methods,":[73],"whose":[74],"effectiveness":[75],"unfortunately":[76],"depends":[77],"correctness":[80],"LiDAR\u2019s":[83],"outcome.":[85,187],"A":[86],"spoofer":[87],"thus":[88],"elude":[90],"from":[91],"these":[92],"methods":[93],"as":[94,96],"long":[95],"it":[97],"fabricates":[98],"points":[99],"that":[100,164],"maintain":[101],"right":[103],"contextual":[104],"relationship":[105],"held":[106],"legitimate":[109,170],"points.":[110],"In":[111],"this":[112,136],"paper,":[113],"we":[114,138,192,218],"propose":[115,234],"use":[117],"signal\u2019s":[119],"Doppler":[120,166],"frequency":[121,167],"shift":[122],"verify":[124],"sender":[126],"signal":[129,211],"detect":[131],"potential":[132],"attacks.":[134],"To":[135],"end,":[137],"first":[139,219],"thoroughly":[140],"analyze":[141],"working":[143],"principle":[144],"conduct":[148],"real-world":[149],"experiments":[150],"deeply":[152],"understand":[153],"reveal":[155],"vulnerability":[157],"sensors.":[160],"We":[161,232],"then":[162,228,233],"prove":[163],"shifts":[168],"signals":[173],"present":[174,229],"different":[175],"characteristics,":[176],"be":[179],"used":[180],"fundamentally":[182],"protect":[183],"For":[188,213],"better":[189],"demonstration":[190],"purposes,":[191],"consider":[193,242],"three":[194],"attack":[195,224],"models,":[196,217],"including":[197],"static":[198],"attacker,":[199,201],"moving":[200,203],"attacker":[204],"with":[205],"control":[206],"both":[208],"velocity":[209],"frequency.":[212],"each":[214],"show":[220],"how":[221],"performed":[226],"our":[230],"countermeasures.":[231],"a":[235,268],"statistical":[236],"detection":[238,257],"framework":[239],"jointly":[241],"impact":[244],"short-term":[246],"uncertainty":[247],"vehicle":[249],"velocity,":[250],"provide":[253],"more":[254],"accurate":[255],"results":[258,264],"realistic":[260],"environments.":[261],"Extensive":[262],"numerical":[263],"provided":[266],"wide":[269],"range":[270],"settings":[272],"road":[274],"conditions.":[275]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":6}],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}