{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2998471861","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/iotsms48152.2019.8939189","title":"Apex: a High-Performance Hierarchical Distributed Ledger","display_name":"Apex: a High-Performance Hierarchical Distributed Ledger","publication_year":2019,"publication_date":"2019-10-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2998471861","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/iotsms48152.2019.8939189","mag":"2998471861"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/iotsms48152.2019.8939189","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/iotsms48152.2019.8939189","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2019 Sixth International Conference on Internet of Things: Systems, Management and Security (IOTSMS)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"conference-paper","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5084924663","display_name":"Marc X. Makkes","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4222-4152"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I865915315","display_name":"Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam","ror":"https://ror.org/008xxew50","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I865915315"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Marc X. Makkes","raw_affiliation_strings":["Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I865915315"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077734038","display_name":"Robert Diebels","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I887064364","display_name":"University of Amsterdam","ror":"https://ror.org/04dkp9463","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I887064364"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Robert Diebels","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I887064364"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.2195,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.52613848,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":94},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"466","last_page":"473"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10772","display_name":"Distributed systems and fault tolerance","score":0.9973000288009644,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7763059735298157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/permission","display_name":"Permission","score":0.672339677810669},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/partition","display_name":"Partition (number theory)","score":0.6411268711090088},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ledger","display_name":"Ledger","score":0.5600785613059998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-ledger","display_name":"Distributed ledger","score":0.5347978472709656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/database-transaction","display_name":"Database transaction","score":0.5258244276046753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-computing","display_name":"Distributed computing","score":0.5195891857147217},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/parallel-computing","display_name":"Parallel computing","score":0.5093158483505249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/speedup","display_name":"Speedup","score":0.5078814625740051},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.3755369484424591},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.24324724078178406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/accounting","display_name":"Accounting","score":0.24032041430473328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/database","display_name":"Database","score":0.1481858193874359},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.12144088745117188}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7763059735298157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779089604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7169333","display_name":"Permission","level":2,"score":0.672339677810669},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42812","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1082910","display_name":"Partition (number theory)","level":2,"score":0.6411268711090088},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C91302708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2732056","display_name":"Ledger","level":2,"score":0.5600785613059998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777541363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25110971","display_name":"Distributed ledger","level":3,"score":0.5347978472709656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75949130","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q848010","display_name":"Database transaction","level":2,"score":0.5258244276046753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.5195891857147217},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C173608175","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q232661","display_name":"Parallel computing","level":1,"score":0.5093158483505249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C68339613","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1549489","display_name":"Speedup","level":2,"score":0.5078814625740051},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.3755369484424591},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.24324724078178406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121955636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4116214","display_name":"Accounting","level":1,"score":0.24032041430473328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77088390","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8513","display_name":"Database","level":1,"score":0.1481858193874359},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.12144088745117188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114614502","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q76592","display_name":"Combinatorics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/iotsms48152.2019.8939189","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/iotsms48152.2019.8939189","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2019 Sixth International Conference on Internet of Things: Systems, Management and Security (IOTSMS)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:research.vu.nl:openaire_cris_publications/da6645ce-9c91-4405-aa81-a5e210cf0b85","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/da6645ce-9c91-4405-aa81-a5e210cf0b85","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401107","display_name":"VU Research Portal","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I865915315","host_organization_name":"Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I865915315"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Makkes , M X &amp; Diebels , R 2019 , Apex : A High-Performance Hierarchical Distributed Ledger . in M Alsmirat &amp; Y Jararweh (eds) , 2019 Sixth International Conference on Internet of Things: Systems, Management and Security (IOTSMS) . , 8939189 , Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. , pp. 466-473 , 6th International Conference on Internet of Things: Systems, Management and Security, IOTSMS 2019 , Granada , Spain , 22/10/19 . https://doi.org/10.1109/IOTSMS48152.2019.8939189","raw_type":"contributionToPeriodical"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.46000000834465027,"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":19,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1861959267","https://openalex.org/W2012251549","https://openalex.org/W2066707382","https://openalex.org/W2113533445","https://openalex.org/W2470694705","https://openalex.org/W2470809521","https://openalex.org/W2507423119","https://openalex.org/W2603176690","https://openalex.org/W2621605855","https://openalex.org/W2726001757","https://openalex.org/W2771552024","https://openalex.org/W2790894500","https://openalex.org/W2806281946","https://openalex.org/W2886871703","https://openalex.org/W2897676665","https://openalex.org/W2919584168","https://openalex.org/W2950563407","https://openalex.org/W2963517786","https://openalex.org/W3151748982"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4253897078","https://openalex.org/W4283163498","https://openalex.org/W4221010187","https://openalex.org/W4226088185","https://openalex.org/W4320037181","https://openalex.org/W3005980542","https://openalex.org/W2810405473","https://openalex.org/W3164536060","https://openalex.org/W2979776202","https://openalex.org/W3160375675"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Designing":[0],"a":[1,11,18,56,98],"secure":[2],"permission":[3],"distributed":[4,25,59,75,101],"ledger":[5,60],"that":[6,32,61,108,130],"has":[7],"the":[8,36,50,63,84,88,120,136],"same":[9],"performance":[10,65],"centralized":[12],"counterpart,":[13],"such":[14,114],"as":[15,115],"Visa,":[16],"is":[17,104,144],"challenging":[19],"task.":[20],"The":[21],"majority":[22],"of":[23,38,70,94,125,138,161],"available":[24],"ledgers":[26,76],"are":[27],"unable":[28],"to":[29,31,83],"scale":[30],"degree.":[33],"To":[34],"increase":[35],"number":[37,137],"transactions":[39,80,162],"per":[40,163,171],"second,":[41],"we":[42,53,154],"can":[43,81],"either":[44],"compromise":[45],"on":[46],"security":[47,89],"or":[48],"partition":[49,96],"Blockchain.":[51],"Here,":[52],"present":[54],"Apex,":[55],"novel":[57],"hierarchical":[58],"increases":[62],"overall":[64],"by":[66],"1)":[67],"partitioning":[68],"groups":[69],"nodes":[71,140],"into":[72,97],"smaller":[73],"concurrent":[74],"2)":[77],"limiting":[78],"how":[79],"flow":[82],"system":[85],"while":[86,141],"guaranteeing":[87],"and":[90,111,168],"3)":[91],"combining":[92],"blocks":[93],"each":[95],"separate":[99],"aggregated":[100],"ledger.":[102],"Apex":[103],"designed":[105],"for":[106],"use-cases":[107],"require":[109],"public":[110],"transparent":[112],"accounting":[113],"intellectual":[116],"property":[117],"rights":[118],"in":[119,159],"music":[121],"industry.":[122],"An":[123],"evaluation":[124],"our":[126],"experimental":[127],"prototype":[128],"shows":[129],"Apex's":[131],"throughput":[132],"scales":[133],"linearly":[134],"with":[135],"active":[139],"transaction":[142],"confirmation":[143],"less":[145],"than":[146],"two":[147],"seconds.":[148],"By":[149],"applying":[150],"these":[151],"tree":[152],"constructs":[153],"achieve":[155],"almost":[156],"linear":[157],"speedup":[158],"terms":[160],"second":[164],"simultaneously":[165],"lowering":[166],"latency":[167],"verification":[169],"computation-cost":[170],"node.":[172]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-29T14:22:42.915294","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
