{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4385482781","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ijcnn54540.2023.10191176","title":"LFLD: A Lightweight Facial Landmark Detector Based on Auxiliary Heatmap","display_name":"LFLD: A Lightweight Facial Landmark Detector Based on Auxiliary Heatmap","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-06-18","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4385482781","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ijcnn54540.2023.10191176"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/ijcnn54540.2023.10191176","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ijcnn54540.2023.10191176","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2023 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101778354","display_name":"Shidong Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8752-4389"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210142748","display_name":"Shandong Academy of Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04y8d6y55","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I152269853","display_name":"Qilu University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04hyzq608","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I152269853"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Shidong Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5104171782","display_name":"Huicong Bian","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I152269853","display_name":"Qilu University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04hyzq608","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I152269853"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210142748","display_name":"Shandong Academy of Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04y8d6y55","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Huicong Bian","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022790232","display_name":"Yalun Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I152269853","display_name":"Qilu University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04hyzq608","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I152269853"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210142748","display_name":"Shandong Academy of Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04y8d6y55","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yalun Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102729942","display_name":"Weixiao Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3538-2831"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I180662265","display_name":"China Mobile (China)","ror":"https://ror.org/05gftfe97","country_code":"CN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I180662265"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Weixiao Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["China Mobile Communication Group Co Ltd,Information Technology Center,Beijing,China","Information Technology Center, China Mobile Communication Group Co Ltd, Beijing, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"China Mobile Communication Group Co Ltd,Information Technology Center,Beijing,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I180662265"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Technology Center, China Mobile Communication Group Co Ltd, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I180662265"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060102543","display_name":"Qin Lu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8082-0313"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210142748","display_name":"Shandong Academy of Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04y8d6y55","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I152269853","display_name":"Qilu University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04hyzq608","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I152269853"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qin Lu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences),Jinan,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qilu University of Technology, (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5101778354"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152269853","https://openalex.org/I4210142748"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.08122258,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"30","issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"8"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11448","display_name":"Face recognition and analysis","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11448","display_name":"Face recognition and analysis","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10057","display_name":"Face and Expression Recognition","score":0.9879000186920166,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10828","display_name":"Biometric Identification and Security","score":0.9854000210762024,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/landmark","display_name":"Landmark","score":0.9557170271873474},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7377093434333801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/regression","display_name":"Regression","score":0.621931791305542},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computation","display_name":"Computation","score":0.6063905358314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5489769577980042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.5181771516799927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/detector","display_name":"Detector","score":0.4812912046909332},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantization","display_name":"Quantization (signal processing)","score":0.4715713858604431},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/regression-analysis","display_name":"Regression analysis","score":0.4544009864330292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.35158106684684753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.261383056640625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.19984591007232666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.1953856348991394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.1762332320213318}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780297707","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4895393","display_name":"Landmark","level":2,"score":0.9557170271873474},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7377093434333801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C83546350","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1139051","display_name":"Regression","level":2,"score":0.621931791305542},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45374587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12525525","display_name":"Computation","level":2,"score":0.6063905358314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5489769577980042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5181771516799927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94915269","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1834857","display_name":"Detector","level":2,"score":0.4812912046909332},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28855332","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q198099","display_name":"Quantization (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.4715713858604431},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152877465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208042","display_name":"Regression analysis","level":2,"score":0.4544009864330292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.35158106684684753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.261383056640625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.19984591007232666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.1953856348991394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.1762332320213318},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/ijcnn54540.2023.10191176","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ijcnn54540.2023.10191176","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2023 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/11","score":0.7300000190734863,"display_name":"Sustainable cities and communities"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":41,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2058961190","https://openalex.org/W2307770531","https://openalex.org/W2474575620","https://openalex.org/W2578797046","https://openalex.org/W2736728583","https://openalex.org/W2736981815","https://openalex.org/W2740020909","https://openalex.org/W2770121394","https://openalex.org/W2798583514","https://openalex.org/W2810967842","https://openalex.org/W2883780447","https://openalex.org/W2962819150","https://openalex.org/W2962909300","https://openalex.org/W2963163009","https://openalex.org/W2963728677","https://openalex.org/W2963741402","https://openalex.org/W2963789946","https://openalex.org/W2982083293","https://openalex.org/W2982772166","https://openalex.org/W2985243484","https://openalex.org/W3010526057","https://openalex.org/W3014641072","https://openalex.org/W3016851515","https://openalex.org/W3034384783","https://openalex.org/W3034399482","https://openalex.org/W3034750257","https://openalex.org/W3039398238","https://openalex.org/W3087040228","https://openalex.org/W3138516171","https://openalex.org/W3160676567","https://openalex.org/W3164941295","https://openalex.org/W3183413007","https://openalex.org/W3202069916","https://openalex.org/W3206810688","https://openalex.org/W3210339053","https://openalex.org/W4313161555","https://openalex.org/W4385245566","https://openalex.org/W6739901393","https://openalex.org/W6775251014","https://openalex.org/W6802010497","https://openalex.org/W6803081272"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W31220157","https://openalex.org/W2312753042","https://openalex.org/W4289356671","https://openalex.org/W2389155397","https://openalex.org/W2165884543","https://openalex.org/W3186837933","https://openalex.org/W2368989808","https://openalex.org/W2034959125","https://openalex.org/W2355687852","https://openalex.org/W2621086889"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0,97,184],"recent":[1],"years,":[2],"heatmap":[3,94,185],"regression":[4,31,95],"models":[5,20],"have":[6,50],"attracted":[7],"much":[8],"attention":[9],"due":[10],"to":[11,92,143,189,222],"their":[12],"superior":[13],"performance":[14],"in":[15,162],"locating":[16],"facial":[17,62,78,126,148],"landmarks.":[18],"These":[19],"overcome":[21],"the":[22,51,71,74,99,109,113,120,124,130,134,146,163,172,217],"lack":[23],"of":[24,29,73,123,165],"spatial":[25],"and":[26,86,112,129,168,180,198,203,216],"contextual":[27],"information":[28],"coordinate":[30],"models.":[32,96],"However,":[33],"there":[34],"are":[35,45],"still":[36],"two":[37,56,104,141],"major":[38],"problems":[39],"with":[40,70,103],"these":[41,140],"models;":[42],"(1)":[43],"they":[44,49],"computationally":[46],"expensive,":[47],"(2)":[48],"quantization":[52],"error.":[53],"To":[54],"address":[55],"issues,":[57],"we":[58],"present":[59],"a":[60],"lightweight":[61],"landmark":[63,79],"detector":[64],"named":[65],"LFLD":[66,82,100,138,157,175,192],"that":[67,107,156],"unifies":[68],"ShuffleNetV2":[69],"principles":[72],"high-resolution":[75],"structure":[76],"for":[77,171],"detection.":[80],"Our":[81,137],"has":[83,193,199,210],"high":[84],"accuracy":[85,219],"significantly":[87],"reduced":[88],"computation":[89],"costs":[90],"compared":[91,188],"other":[93],"addition,":[98],"is":[101,220],"equipped":[102],"detection":[105,218],"heads":[106],"generate":[108],"primary":[110,117],"heatmaps":[111,118,132,142],"auxiliary":[114,131],"heatmaps.":[115],"The":[116,151],"represent":[119,145],"integer":[121],"part":[122],"predicted":[125,147],"landmarks":[127,149],"coordinates,":[128],"indicate":[133],"fractional":[135],"part.":[136],"uses":[139],"jointly":[144],"coordinates.":[150],"extensive":[152],"experimental":[153],"results":[154,161],"show":[155],"can":[158],"achieve":[159],"satisfactory":[160],"case":[164],"low":[166],"parameters":[167,202,212],"FLOPs.":[169,206],"Particularly":[170],"NME,":[173],"our":[174,191,208],"reaches":[176],"4.31%":[177],"on":[178,182],"WFLW":[179],"3.54%":[181],"300W.":[183],"regression,":[186],"when":[187],"HRNet,":[190],"lower":[194],"NME":[195],"than":[196,213],"HRNet":[197],"45%":[200],"fewer":[201,205,211],"66%":[204],"Finally,":[207],"model":[209],"large":[214,223],"networks,":[215],"comparable":[221],"networks.":[224]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2025-12-24T23:09:58.560324","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
