{"id":"https://openalex.org/W1971245528","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ijcb.2011.6117551","title":"Difficult imaging covariates or difficult subjects? - An empirical investigation","display_name":"Difficult imaging covariates or difficult subjects? - An empirical investigation","publication_year":2011,"publication_date":"2011-10-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W1971245528","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ijcb.2011.6117551","mag":"1971245528"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/ijcb.2011.6117551","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ijcb.2011.6117551","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2011 International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"conference-paper","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5029553343","display_name":"Jeffrey R. Paone","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jeffrey Paone","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055091440","display_name":"Soma Biswas","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9068-7023"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Soma Biswas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112230947","display_name":"Gaurav Aggarwal","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gaurav Aggarwal","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039987576","display_name":"Patrick J. Flynn","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5446-114X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Patrick Flynn","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame. 384 Fitzpatrick Hall, IN 46556, USA#TAB#","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":5,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"3","issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"8"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10057","display_name":"Face and Expression Recognition","score":0.9995999932289124,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10057","display_name":"Face and Expression Recognition","score":0.9995999932289124,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10828","display_name":"Biometric Identification and Security","score":0.9987000226974487,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11448","display_name":"Face recognition and analysis","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.797560453414917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/consistency","display_name":"Consistency (knowledge bases)","score":0.7091652750968933},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biometrics","display_name":"Biometrics","score":0.6516361236572266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/focus","display_name":"Focus (optics)","score":0.5408881306648254},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.5285302996635437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.5135340690612793},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5117194652557373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.4674077332019806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/expression","display_name":"Expression (computer science)","score":0.4617050290107727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/face","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","score":0.4532259404659271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/facial-recognition-system","display_name":"Facial recognition system","score":0.4243677258491516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-research","display_name":"Empirical research","score":0.42280787229537964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.34554705023765564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.15475806593894958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.10857009887695312}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.797560453414917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776436953","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5163215","display_name":"Consistency (knowledge bases)","level":2,"score":0.7091652750968933},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184297639","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177765","display_name":"Biometrics","level":2,"score":0.6516361236572266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192209626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190909","display_name":"Focus (optics)","level":2,"score":0.5408881306648254},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5285302996635437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.5135340690612793},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5117194652557373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.4674077332019806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90559484","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q778379","display_name":"Expression (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.4617050290107727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.4532259404659271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31510193","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1192553","display_name":"Facial recognition system","level":3,"score":0.4243677258491516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.42280787229537964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.34554705023765564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.15475806593894958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.10857009887695312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36289849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34749","display_name":"Social science","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/ijcb.2011.6117551","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ijcb.2011.6117551","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2011 International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320312530","display_name":"Office of the Director of National Intelligence","ror":"https://ror.org/01v3fsc55"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":17,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1529175421","https://openalex.org/W1533303231","https://openalex.org/W2002836168","https://openalex.org/W2012411608","https://openalex.org/W2035830871","https://openalex.org/W2069255443","https://openalex.org/W2072313242","https://openalex.org/W2096838591","https://openalex.org/W2125860240","https://openalex.org/W2129312524","https://openalex.org/W2134972128","https://openalex.org/W2137659841","https://openalex.org/W2158698691","https://openalex.org/W2187663530","https://openalex.org/W2334256679","https://openalex.org/W6631580519","https://openalex.org/W6631923913"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2770234245","https://openalex.org/W96612179","https://openalex.org/W4229499248","https://openalex.org/W2566006169","https://openalex.org/W1567818861","https://openalex.org/W2987774938","https://openalex.org/W2076845124","https://openalex.org/W4256492088","https://openalex.org/W632915154","https://openalex.org/W2055733372"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"performance":[1,26,36,75,161],"of":[2,37,86],"face":[3,73],"recognition":[4,74],"algorithms":[5,39,93],"is":[6,118],"affected":[7],"both":[8],"by":[9],"external":[10,186],"factors":[11,20,70,90,165],"and":[12,21,44,149],"internal":[13,174],"subject":[14,175],"characteristics":[15],"[I].":[16],"Reliably":[17],"identifying":[18,69],"these":[19],"understanding":[22],"their":[23],"behavior":[24],"on":[25,68,92],"can":[27],"potentially":[28],"serve":[29],"two":[30],"important":[31],"goals":[32],"to":[33,45,53,109,137,140,168,190],"predict":[34],"the":[35,38,84,87,153],"at":[40,50],"novel":[41],"deployment":[42],"sites":[43,52],"design":[46],"appropriate":[47],"acquisition":[48],"environments":[49],"prospective":[51],"optimize":[54],"performance.":[55],"There":[56],"have":[57,91],"been":[58,79,107],"a":[59,102,113],"few":[60],"recent":[61],"efforts":[62],"in":[63],"this":[64,119,131],"direction":[65],"that":[66,71,146,157,173],"focus":[67],"affect":[72],"but":[76,117],"there":[77],"has":[78,106],"no":[80],"extensive":[81],"study":[82],"regarding":[83],"consistency":[85,184],"effects":[88],"various":[89],"when":[94,163,185],"other":[95,164],"covariates":[96],"vary.":[97,169,191],"To":[98],"give":[99,159],"an":[100],"example,":[101],"smiling":[103,150],"target":[104],"image":[105],"reported":[108],"be":[110],"better":[111],"than":[112],"neutral":[114],"expression":[115,151],"image,":[116],"true":[120],"across":[121],"all":[122],"possible":[123],"illumination":[124],"conditions,":[125],"head":[126],"poses,":[127],"gender,":[128],"etc.?":[129],"In":[130],"paper,":[132],"we":[133],"perform":[134],"rigorous":[135],"experiments":[136],"provide":[138],"answers":[139],"such":[141],"questions.":[142],"Our":[143],"investigation":[144],"indicates":[145],"controlled":[147],"lighting":[148],"are":[152,166,188],"most":[154],"favorable":[155],"conditions":[156,187],"consistently":[158],"superior":[160],"even":[162],"allowed":[167,189],"We":[170],"also":[171],"observe":[172],"characterization":[176],"using":[177],"biometric":[178],"menagerie-based":[179],"classification":[180],"shows":[181],"very":[182],"weak":[183]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-14T23:27:15.235271","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
