{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7141589474","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icce67443.2026.11449610","title":"No ML, Just Hashes: Code Similarity Distance for Detecting IoT Malware","display_name":"No ML, Just Hashes: Code Similarity Distance for Detecting IoT Malware","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7141589474","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icce67443.2026.11449610"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/icce67443.2026.11449610","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icce67443.2026.11449610","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2026 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100756566","display_name":"Mohammed Rauf Ali Khan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2658-1969"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I134085113","display_name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","ror":"https://ror.org/03yez3163","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210112034","display_name":"King Fahd Military Medical Complex","ror":"https://ror.org/01c524129","country_code":"SA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210112034"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Mohammed Rauf Ali Khan","raw_affiliation_strings":["KFUPM,Department of Computer Engineering,Dhahran,Saudi Arabia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"KFUPM,Department of Computer Engineering,Dhahran,Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210112034","https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049762656","display_name":"Louai Al-Awami","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1049-7343"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I134085113","display_name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","ror":"https://ror.org/03yez3163","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210112034","display_name":"King Fahd Military Medical Complex","ror":"https://ror.org/01c524129","country_code":"SA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210112034"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Louai Al-Awami","raw_affiliation_strings":["KFUPM,Department of Computer Engineering,Dhahran,Saudi Arabia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"KFUPM,Department of Computer Engineering,Dhahran,Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210112034","https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100756566"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113","https://openalex.org/I4210112034"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94844389,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"6"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.909500002861023,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.909500002861023,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.01769999973475933,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11644","display_name":"Spam and Phishing Detection","score":0.016100000590085983,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/code","display_name":"Code (set theory)","score":0.4512999951839447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/malware","display_name":"Malware","score":0.4296000003814697},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/internet-of-things","display_name":"Internet of Things","score":0.3499999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/similarity","display_name":"Similarity (geometry)","score":0.34940001368522644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.3176000118255615}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.652400016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776760102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5139990","display_name":"Code (set theory)","level":3,"score":0.4512999951839447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C541664917","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14001","display_name":"Malware","level":2,"score":0.4296000003814697},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.36320000886917114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81860439","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q251212","display_name":"Internet of Things","level":2,"score":0.3499999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C103278499","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254465","display_name":"Similarity (geometry)","level":3,"score":0.34940001368522644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.3176000118255615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.29910001158714294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.2890999913215637},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.2630999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780009758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6804172","display_name":"Measure (data warehouse)","level":2,"score":0.26030001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.2572999894618988}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/icce67443.2026.11449610","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icce67443.2026.11449610","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2026 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":10,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2747969544","https://openalex.org/W2942472907","https://openalex.org/W3082865669","https://openalex.org/W3119689710","https://openalex.org/W4284967266","https://openalex.org/W4290694460","https://openalex.org/W4312106740","https://openalex.org/W4384434573","https://openalex.org/W4394985008","https://openalex.org/W4407025206"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,212],"steady":[1],"rise":[2],"of":[3,148,152,162,179,207],"consumer":[4],"Internet-of-Things":[5],"(IoT)":[6],"device":[7],"usage":[8],"has":[9],"proportionally":[10],"led":[11],"to":[12],"an":[13,146],"increase":[14],"in":[15,169,238],"malware":[16,28,58,175,236],"targeting":[17],"embedded":[18],"systems.":[19],"Exact":[20],"hash":[21,192,210,225],"matching":[22],"using":[23],"MD5":[24],"or":[25],"SHA-256":[26],"for":[27,50,73,234],"detection":[29,237],"is":[30,215],"ineffective":[31],"when":[32],"small":[33],"changes":[34],"alter":[35],"file":[36],"hashes.":[37],"In":[38,177],"this":[39],"paper,":[40],"we":[41],"present":[42],"a":[43,110,133],"lightweight":[44,217],"approach":[45,126],"based":[46],"on":[47,202,221],"similarity":[48,79],"hashing":[49,98],"detecting":[51,170],"Extensible":[52],"and":[53,66,89,106,116,150,196,227,241],"Linkable":[54],"Format":[55],"(ELF)":[56],"IoT":[57,239],"binaries.":[59],"Eighteen":[60],"datasets,":[61],"each":[62],"containing":[63],"1,284":[64],"malicious":[65],"1,291":[67],"clean":[68],"ELF":[69,114,174],"samples,":[70],"were":[71,94],"collected":[72],"analysis.":[74],"For":[75],"every":[76],"sample,":[77],"three":[78],"hashes":[80,103,117],"namely":[81],"SSDEEP,":[82],"Trend":[83],"Micro":[84],"Locality":[85],"Sensitive":[86],"Hash":[87],"(TLSH),":[88],"Lempel\u2013Ziv":[90],"Jaccard":[91],"Distance":[92],"(LZJD)":[93],"computed":[95],"under":[96],"two":[97],"views.":[99],"A":[100],"static-feature":[101],"view":[102,112],"extracted":[104],"metadata":[105],"printable":[107],"strings,":[108],"while":[109,154],"file-structure":[111],"removes":[113],"headers":[115],"only":[118],"the":[119,125,141,159,205],"executable":[120],"payload.":[121],"Using":[122],"fixed":[123],"thresholds,":[124,165],"avoids":[127],"machine":[128],"learning":[129],"pipelines":[130],"entirely.":[131],"On":[132],"held-out":[134],"validation":[135],"set,":[136],"SSDEEP":[137,186],"(static":[138],"view)":[139,157],"achieved":[140],"best":[142],"overall":[143],"performance":[144],"with":[145],"accuracy":[147],"78.3%":[149],"precision":[151,161],"0.84,":[153],"LZJD":[155,197],"(payload":[156],"maintained":[158],"highest":[160],"0.93":[163],"across":[164],"demonstrating":[166],"its":[167],"strength":[168],"content-level":[171],"similarities":[172],"among":[173],"samples.":[176],"terms":[178],"resource":[180],"usage,":[181],"memory":[182,229],"profiling":[183],"revealed":[184],"that":[185],"required":[187],"around":[188],"2.4":[189],"KB":[190,201],"per":[191],"comparison,":[193],"whereas":[194],"TLSH":[195],"consumed":[198],"approximately":[199],"0.27":[200],"average,":[203],"confirming":[204],"efficiency":[206],"their":[208],"fixed-length":[209],"representations.":[211],"proposed":[213],"pipeline":[214],"computationally":[216],"as":[218],"it":[219,232],"relies":[220],"single-pass":[222],"hashing,":[223],"compact":[224],"comparisons,":[226],"minimal":[228],"overhead,":[230],"making":[231],"suitable":[233],"real-time":[235],"gateways":[240],"edge":[242],"devices.":[243]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-29T06:01:01.467347","created_date":"2026-03-28T00:00:00"}